14c–15a anointing + save — Link between Anointing and Eschatological Salvation Two passages from the Iliad echo James’ allusions to eschatological salvation:

• →Homer Il. 16.677–680 “Immediately then he [i.e., Apollo] lifted up noble Sarpedon out of the range of the missiles and, carrying him far away, bathed him in the streams of the river, and anointed him with ambrosia (chrisen t' ambrosiêᵢ), and clothed him with immortal raiment (ambrota heimata), and gave him to swift conveyers, to the twin brothers Sleep and Death, to bring with them, and they set him down speedily in the rich land of wide Lycia” (Murray and Wyatt 1999, 2:212–213).
• →Homer Il. 23.184–187 “So he [i.e., Achilles] spoke threatening, but no dogs were busy with Hector [i.e., his body], but the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite, kept dogs from him by day and by night alike, and with oil she anointed him (chrien elaiôᵢ), rose-sweet, ambrosial, so that Achilles might not tear him as he dragged him” (Murray and Wyatt 1999, 2:506–507).

14f Relationship between Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum Since the early Middle Ages, the Catholic tradition has emphasized the close relationship between the sacraments of penance, the anointing of the sick, and the viaticum (communion given to one about to die).

• →Rom. Rit. An.: Roman Catholic liturgy has a "Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum" in which a dying person receives the three sacraments in close succession (ICEL 1983, 202–219).

14bc pray over him + in the name of the Lord — Sacramentology: Form of the Sacrament. In the Roman Catholic tradition, the prayer said during the anointing is understood as the "form" (forma) of the sacrament:

• →Florence Exs. Deo "'Through this holy anointing and his most pious mercy, may the Lord pardon for whatever offenses you have committed by sight'" (→DzH 1324, said during the anointing of the eyes; similar prayer for each of the anointings on other parts of the body; cf. →Aquinas ST Suppl. 29.8; →Trent Extr. unct. 1 [→DzH 1695]). The traditional focus of the sacrament was thus on the pardoning of sins. 
• →Rom. Rit. An.: After Vatican II the reformed rite calls for just one prayer, said as the forehead and hands are anointed, "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up" (ICEL 1983, 110). The adapted wording is closer to Jas 5:15. →Paul VI Sacr. unct. explains, "We thought fit to modify the sacramental formula in such a way that, in view of the words of Saint James, the effects of the sacrament might be better expressed (effectus sacramentales satius exprimerentur)" (cf.→CCC 1513).

14c anointing him with oil Sacramentology: Matter of the Anointing of the Sick

• →Florence Exs. Deo (→DzH 1324) and →Trent Extr. unct. 1 (→DzH 1695) teach that the matter (materia) of the sacrament is olive oil (oleum olivae) blessed by a bishop.
• →CCC 1504 links Jesus’ use of “signs of healing” (use of saliva and touch) with the physical aspect of the sacraments: “And so in the sacraments Christ continues to ‘touch’ us in order to heal us.”

14c anointing him with oil Literary References to Anointing of the Sick

• →Shakespeare Hamlet 1.5.77: The Ghost of Hamlet's father laments that his sudden murder left him, "cut off even in the blossoms of my sin, unhouseled, disappointed, unaneled." The Ghost refers to his lack of opportunity to prepare for death with the sacraments of the Eucharist, Penance, and Extreme Unction (Farnham 1957, 55).
• Sigrid Undset's trilogy Kristin Lavransdatter includes several scenes involving the dying confessing their sins and receiving last rites and the viaticum, including Kristin's father and Kristin herself (→Undset Lavransdatter).

14c anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord : Byz TR Nes | B: anointing with oil in the name B omits "him" after "anointing," and “of the Lord” after "the name."

14a is sick Physically The verb astheneô (“being sick”) refers generally to physical illness or weakness (e.g., Mt 10:8; 25:36), in contrast to the broader range of physical, mental, or emotional suffering denoted by the term “suffering” (kakopatheô; V: tristatur, “being gloomy, dismal”), used in v. 13a. See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:14b; Christian Tradition Jas 5:14c; Liturgies Jas 5:14b; Liturgies Jas 5:14c.

14c in the name of the Lord Instrumental or Circumstantial? The relationship of this phrase to the action of anointing may be understood as:

• attendant circumstances: anointing while invoking the Lord’s name (cf. Jn 14:13–14; Eph 5:20);
• in an instrumental sense, anointing by the power and authority ("name") of the Lord (cf. Mt 7:22; Acts 4:10).

See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:14c.

14c anointing Antecedent or Simultaneous Action The aorist participle (aleipsantes) normally denotes an action antecedent to the action of the main verb: “having anointed.” Yet, if the main verb is also aorist—here it is imperative aorist (proseuxasthôsan)—the participle can be simultaneous to the action of the main verb.

13–18 Isotopy of Prayer Every verse in this passage refers to prayer; however, the words used are not simple synonyms.

• The noun euchê ("prayer," v. 15a) and the corresponding verb euchomai ("to pray," v. 16b) are generic terms.
• The verb expressing the prayer of petition is proseuchomai (v. 13a, 14b, 17b, 18a) or proseuchê (v. 17b).
• More concretely, the noun deêsis (v. 16c) stands for a supplication or a particular request.
• As for psallô ("to chant," v. 13b), it applies to prayer in the form of a hymn (Vocabulary Jas 5:13b), in particular in the liturgical context.

13–20 Connection between Healing and Conversion Several biblical passages evince the connection between healing (Jas 5:14–16) and conversion from sin (Jas 5:19–20):

• G-Dt 30:2–3 "And return (epistrephô) to the Lord your God and obey his voice in all that I command you today…and the Lord will heal (iaomai) your sins."
• 2Chr 7:14 "if then my people…turn (M: šwb; G: apostrephô) from their evil ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal (G: iaomai; M = rp’) their land."
• Is 6:10 "they turn (M: šwb; G: epistrephô) and be healed (M: rp’; G: iaomai)."
• Jer 3:22 "Return (M: šwb; G: epistrephô), rebellious children! I will heal (M: rp’; G: iaomai) your rebellions."
• Hos 6:1 "Come, let us return (M: šwb; G: epistrephô) to the Lord, For it is he who has torn, but he will heal (M: rp’; G: iaomai) us" (NAB).
• See also Prv 3:7; Ez 34:4,16.

14f Gifts of Healing in Paul

• In 1Cor 12:9,30, Paul speaks of community members who have been given the "gifts of healing" (charismata iamatôn).
• In this passage, the authority to heal is restricted to the presbyters (v. 14b).

14f anointing him with oil Depictions of Anointing The sacrament of the anointing of the sick ("extreme unction"), which the Catholic Church considers to be defined in Jas 5:14–15, has been depicted artistically in many ways:

Paintings

• Rogier van der Weyden, "Extreme Unction," part of a The Seven Sacraments altarpiece (1445–1550). Koninklijk Museum, Antwerp. Accessed here→
• Hieronymus Bosch (?), "Four Last Things," part of The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things (ca. 1500). Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Accessed here→
• Dutch School, "Last rites" (ca. 1600). Accessed here→

• Nicolas Poussin, "L'extrême-onction," part of Les Sept Sacrements (ca. 1636–1640). Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge. Set in ancient times, a priest anoints the dying man's eyes. Accessed here→. 
• Nicolas Poussin, "L'extrême-onction," part of another Les Sept Sacrements (ca. 1644–1648). Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh. Set in ancient times, Poussin portrays a dying Christian soldier; a priest anoints his hands. Accessed here→. 
• Giuseppe Crespi, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1712). Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden. Accessed here→.

Etchings

• Pietro Longhi, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1755). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Accessed here→.

Tapestries

• South Netherlandish, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1435–1450). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed here→.

14b presbyters Community Leaders The term presbuteros in Greek is a comparative, referring literally to one who is elder in age (cf. Lk 15:25: "the elder son"). In the OT, NT, and Hellenistic contexts, it refers to a variety of community leaders whose authority may be based on their seniority or their official office (e.g., →BGU 1.195.30: "elders of the village"; →P. Tebt. 1.13.5: representatives of farmers). See also Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14b; →Ecclesiastical Vocabulary among the First Christian Communities: episkopoi, presbuteroi, and diakonoi.

14c anointing Related Terms The verb for anointing with oil (aleiphô) is commonly used for physical healing (Mk 6:13) or as a sign of good health (Mt 6:17) in contrast with chriô, the usual Greek term for the ritual anointing of the kings and prophets in the OT. See also Ancient Texts Jas 5:14c; Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14c.

14b let them pray Prayers for Healing The OT records several prayers for healing.

• 1Kgs 17:20–22: Elijah prays for the life of the widow's son.
• 2Kgs 20:2–6: Hezekiah's prayer and healing (cf. the parallel in Is 38:2–6).
• Sir 38:1–15: Prayers for healing (vv. 9, 14) are combined with praise for and recommendation of the skills of the physician.

The Psalmist often prays for healing.

• Ps 6:2 (G-6:3) "Have pity on me, Lord, for I am weak; heal (M: rp’; G: iaomai) me, Lord, for my bones are shuddering."
• Ps 30:2 (G-29:3) "O Lord, my God, I cried out to you for help and you healed me (M: rp’; G: iaomai)."

14b church Meaning of ekklêsia

• In general, the term can refer to any legislative assembly (see Acts 19:39: "lawful assembly"), or a community who share common beliefs (→Diogenes Laërtius Vit. phil. 8.41, referring to the followers of Pythagoras).
• In G, it can refer to the community of Israel, as in Dt 31:30 "the whole assembly (M: qāhāl) of Israel." For Christians, the term took on a specialized meaning, referring to the local communities of worship (e.g., 1Thes 1:1: "church of the Thessalonians") or to the universal Church (e.g., Col 1:18: "He is the head of the body, the church."

See also →Ecclesiastical Vocabulary among the First Christian Communities: episkopoi, presbuteroi, and diakonoi.

13–14a Rhetorical Questions? These opening phrases can be taken as questions (see Grammar Jas 5:13f). This is possible, as James frequently uses questions, and here the rapid series of three questions and responses gives the flavor of an oral give-and-take (cf. Jas 3:13 for the same construction).

14b presbyters Identity of the Presbyters

Latin tradition

• V transliterates the Greek presbuteroi as presbyteri. In the later Latin tradition, both presbyter and sacerdos can refer to an ordained priest; this is the traditional interpretation of this passage as seen in →Trent Extr. unct. 3 (→DzH 1697): the word presbyter refers to either "bishops or priests" (aut episcopi aut sacerdotes); cf. can. 4 (→DzH 1719).
• In his paraphrase of Jas 5:14, →Erasmus Par. Jac. ad loc. renders presbuteroi as seniores christianae congregationis ("senior Christians of the congregation"), but retains the traditional presbyteri in his Latin rendering of his published New Testament Greek editions (Bateman 1993, 169; Bateman 1997, 158).

Syriac Tradition

S renders presbuteroi as qšyš’. This word can refer either to one elder in age, or to a priest. S uses the term in Acts 11:30; 20:17 to refer to church leaders (presbuteroi in Greek).

For more, see →Ecclesiastical Vocabulary among the First Christian Communities: episkopoi, presbuteroi, and diakonoi.

14b over him An Unusual Preposition The use of the preposition epi (ep' auton) with pray (proseuchomai) is unusual. It may:

• have the sense of the presbyters standing over a sick person who is lying down;
• allude to the sense of invoking God's name over the person (cf. Jas 2:7);
• allude to the sense of laying hands on the sick person during prayer; →Origen Hom. Lev. 2.4.5 translates "and they will place their hands on him" (imponant ei manus) instead of "they should pray over him" (Barkley 1990, 48; Borret 1981, 110).

14b presbyters Informal and Formal Community Leaders In the OT, the term can refer to the leaders of a community, e.g., Ru 4:2 "the elders (M: zᵉqēnîm; G: presbuteroi) of the city." A key passage is Moses' selection of seventy elders to help him lead the Israelites.

The title "presbyters / elders" is given frequently to official Jewish leaders in the Gospels and Acts, named often alongside the chief priests and scribes (e.g., Mk 14:43; Acts 4:23). The "presbyters / elders" sent by a centurion to Jesus in Lk 7:3 may reflect a more informal use of the term.

In several NT books the term is used to designate church leaders (e.g., Acts 15:2; 2Jn 1; 3Jn 1; see especially the same phrase “presbyters of the church” in Acts 20:17). A group of presbyters helped to lead the first Jerusalem church (e.g., Acts 15:2). Paul and Barnabas appoint presbyters in their churches (Acts 14:23), as does Paul's co-worker (Tt 1:5). 1Tm 5:17 lists preaching (logos) and teaching as two of the duties of a presbyter; cf. the literal reference in 1Tm 5:1 to men older in age.

The terms "presbyter" and "bishop" (episkopos) are not always clearly distinguished: in Paul's letters, the Ephesian presbyters are also called episkopoi. Both terms have a broader literal meaning (presbyter = "elder" in terms of age; episkopos = "overseer"), and it is not always clear when the term is to be taken in its broader literal sense and when it refers to a specialized office of the church. See also →Ecclesiastical Vocabulary among the First Christian Communities: episkopoi, presbuteroi, and diakonoi.

14a someone among you is sick Intended for All the Sick in General, or for the Dying?

For the Sick in General

• →Critopoulos Conf. 13.5 "We call this 'holy unction' (euchalaion) not 'extreme unction' (eschatê krisis), for we do not wait until the sick man is dying and only then give it to him. But we use this sacrament (mustêrion), or sacramental rite, while we still have good hope for his recovery (elpidas agathas echontes huper tês hugieias ekeinou), and we pray God to heal him and deliver him quickly from his sickness. So it is possible to use this sacrament many times (pollakis) during a man's life, and not just once, just as we use a doctor's medicines whenever we are ill" (CCFCT 1:530; Karmires 1968, 2:544–545).
• →Palamas Hom. 31.17 assumes that the anointed person may recover, "But you must co-operate (dei de kai humas sunergein) with the prayers made on your behalf by changing your way of life, making confession, giving alms, and other works of repentance (dia tôn allôn ergôn tês metanoias)" (Veniamin 2009, 250).
• →Luther Capt. Bab. and →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.21 (Beveridge 1994, 2:638; Baum et al. 1864, 1080) insist that, "Is anyone among you sick?" clearly refers to the anointing of the sick in general, not to the dying in particular. Luther adds that the practice of anointing only the dying deprives other sick people of the benefit of the anointing (LW 36:119; WA 6:568).

For Those in Danger of Death

• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 32.2 "This sacrament is called by all 'Extreme Unction'…the last remedy (ultima remedia) that the Church can give, since it is an immediate preparation for glory. Therefore it ought to be given to those only, who are so sick as to be in a state of departure from this life (in statu exeuntium)" (cf. →Aquinas SCG 73). But perhaps James only speaks of the sick in general? Thomas replies, "Any sickness can cause death, if it be aggravated (augmentata). Hence if we consider the different kinds of diseases, there is none in which this sacrament cannot be given; and for this reason the apostle does not determine any particular one" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2663).
• →Estius Comm. ep. cath. ad loc. argues that the Greek word asthenei (Jas 5:14a) refers to serious illness (1778, 11:4368); also →Lapide Comm. Jac. ad loc. (Crampon 1891, 20:214).

14b presbyters Sacramentology: Ministers

• →Florence Exs. Deo "The minister of this sacrament is the priest (sacerdos)" (→DzH 1324).
• →Trent Extr. unct. 3 “the proper ministers (proprii ministri) of this sacrament are the presbyters (presbyteri) of the Church" (→DzH 1697). Canon 4 rejects the Reformed understanding that the presbyters are not priests (sacerdotes) but senior members of each community" (→DzH 1719).
• See also →CCC 1516; →CIC 1003.1.

1:1–5:20 James Depictions of James

Western Catholic Tradition

Depictions of James, the author of the epistle, in paintings, statues, manuscript illustrations, engravings, woodcuts, and embroidery on liturgical vestments are particularly prominent in the Middle Ages. A common consensus of the artists is that the author of the epistle is James the Just, leader of the Jerusalem church; he is typically further identified with James, son of Alphaeus, one of Jesus' Twelve (Mk 3:18), and "James the Less" (Mk 15:40; →Jameses near Jesus). The iconography of James draws particularly on accounts of James recorded in →Eusebius of Caesarea Hist. eccl. 2.23 and →Jerome Vir. ill. 2, who in turn draw on accounts from Clement of Alexandria and Hegesippus (→Introduction). Several prominent features of these portrayals may be noted:

• Following the tradition that he was the first bishop of Jerusalem, James is often portrayed anachronistically in bishop's vestments.
• James is often portrayed holding a fuller's club, alluding to the tradition that James was beaten to death with a such a club. Variations show him holding different types of clubs. Another related tradition shows James holding a bow such as one used by hat-makers of the Middle Ages.
• James bears a striking physical resemblance to his brother Jesus.
• One artistic tradition, based on accounts found in the preface to the →Glossa ord. and →de Voragine Leg. aur., portrays the infant James as part of a large extended family. According to this legend, Anne, mother of the Virgin Mary, had three children named Mary with three different husbands. James and his brothers Joses (Joseph), Simon, and Jude (cf. Mk 6:3) are the sons of Mary (daughter of Anne and Cleophas; cf. Jn 19:25) and Alphaeus (cf. Mk 3:18). James and his brothers are thus cousins of Jesus (son of Mary, daughter of Anne and Joachim) and of John the Evangelist and James the Greater (sons of Mary, daughter of Anne and Salomas).

The following images are noteworthy:

• A painting of James in the Armenian St. James Cathedral, Jerusalem: James is dressed in episcopal robes, wears a miter, and holds a crozier (→Gowler 2014, 54).
• Blessed James Apostle. In the Stavelot Bible (1093–1097, British Museum Add. MS. 28106–28107) illuminations of the apostle James are at the introduction to the Catholic epistles (f. 197 r→) and at the beginning of his epistle (f. 197 v→). The apostle stands, holding a book.
• Apostle James the Less, statue, south portal of Chartres Cathedral, early 13^th century.

James holds a club.

• Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper (1495–1498), Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. 

James, who resembles his brother Jesus, is second from his left. This full-scale copy was the main source for the—unfortunate—twenty-year restoration of the original (1978–1998). It includes several lost details such as Christ's feet, the transparent glass decanters on the table, and the floral motifs of the tapestries that decorate the room's interior. It was first mentioned in 1626 by the author Bartolomeo Sanese as hanging in the Certosa di Pavia, a monastery near Pavia, Italy, but it is unlikely that it was intended for this location. At some point, the upper third of the picture was cut off, and the width was reduced. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with Leonardo when he was in Milan. A very fine, full-size copy of this painting, before it was cut down, is installed at Tongerlo Abbey in Westerlo, near Antwerp, Belgium. 

• Lucas Cranach the Elder, The Holy Kinship (1509), a triptych in the Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt, Germany. The infant Jesus, his mother Mary, and Mary's mother Anne are portrayed in the center. To the right is Anne's other daughter Mary, her husband Zebedee, and sons John the Evangelist and James the Greater. To the left is another of Anne's daughters named Mary with her husband Alphaeus; their children James, Joses (Joseph), Simon, and Jude are in the left and center panels.

The side and central panels describe a great hall with blue grey walls and three-colored tiles. In the side panels are depicted the half-sisters of the Virgin Mary —called after their fathers Mary Cleophas (left) and Mary Salome (right)—together with their husbands.

Left panel: Mary Cleophas and Alphaeus (with the features of Frederick the Wise) with their two sons, the Apostles James the Less (at her breast) and Joseph Justus, called Barnabas, depicted with a book as annunciator of the Gospel according to Matthew.

Central panel: Joseph, who seems to seems to sleep, the Virgin dressed in blue with yellow lining, Anna and the Christ Child on her knee, who is stretching out his hand towards an apple given to him by the Virgin Mary. Anna's three husbands following →de Voragine Leg. aur. are shown in the background in the matroneum: on the left Joachim, who is attracted by the holy women in front of him and whose relation is also shown by the corresponding blue and yellow color of his dress, Cleophas (with the physiognomy and chain of Emperor Maximilian I), and Salomas (with the physiognomy of Sixtus Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, secretary of Frederick III, Maximilian I, and Charles V), who are talking to each other. There is an architectural structure by a great stone bench in the foreground of the central panel with two marble columns on the sides, over which is stretched a cloth of gold. On the right column is a tablet with date and signature: LVCAS CHRONVS FACIEBAT ANNO MDIX (1509). The parapet of the matroneum is decorated by a sculptured frieze with dancing putti holding six escutcheons with the six fields of the electorate of Saxony. In the hall are shown the 17 members of the The Holy Kinship. In the central panel are shown two more children of Mary Cleophas and Alpheus: the Apostles Simon, patron saint of weavers, dyers, tanners, and saddlers, and Jude, who went on mission. They suffered their martyrdom together and therefore are regularly depicted together.

Right panel: Mary Salome and Zebedee (with the features of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, and his brother Herzog Johann der Beständige). Mary Salome, dressed in gold with dark red lining, is combing her son James the Greater, while John the Evangelist is hiding in her dress.

• Paolo Veronese (Caliari), James as Bishop (ca. 1578), Burghley House Collection, Lincolnshire, UK. James with crozier and miter, holding a book.

• El Greco, Saint James the Less (1610–1614), Museo del Greco, Toledo, Spain. 

James is shown holding a Bible, symbolizing his status as a scriptural writer, in one hand. James is depicted in the Mannerist style with elongated form and without any of the traditional iconographic symbols

• Niccolò Bambini, The Communion of the Apostle James the Less→ (1722–1723).

The risen Jesus appears to James and breaks bread with him (based on an account recorded in →Jerome Vir. ill. 2, said to be drawn from the Gospel according to the Hebrews).

• Angelo de Rossi, James the Less→ (1705–1711), Saint John Lateran, Rome.

James holds a book and club.

• James Tissot, Saint James the Less→ (1886–1894), Brooklyn Museum, New York.

James, resembling Jesus, prays on his knees with outstretched arms. It perhaps reflects Hegesippus' statement that James spent so much time in prayer that his knees were as hard as a camel's.

Eastern Orthodox Traditions

• Martyrdom of James the Just, illustration from the Menologion of Basil II (late 10^th/early 11^th c., PG 117:9–614), Vatican Library, Vat. gr. 1613: image 131→.
• James the Just, Russian icon, 16^th c., Novgorod. James is depicted in episcopal robes and holds a book.

The inscription bearing the name of the saint has disappeared, but the iconography—facial features and beard shape—suggest that the icon is of James. Byzantine art places him among the founding fathers of the Church. As the creator of the first liturgy containing memorial services and the author of the message that speaks of the healing power of prayer (Jas 5:14–16), he was worshipped in ancient times as a healer. In Novgorod, James is prayed for the end of the epidemics. In sacred iconography, the representations of James alone are very rare. On icons he is represented with other saints: James the brother of the Lord, Nicholas the Thaumaturgist, and Ignatius the God-Bearer (end of the 15^th c.); James the brother of the Lord, Cosmas, and Damian (2^nd quarter of the 16^th c.).

For discussion of visual depictions, see →Bedford 1911; →Gowler 2014, 53–62.

14c,15b the Lord Ambiguous Reference of the Divine Name James has two references to "the Lord" in this section on healing:

• v. 14c "anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord";
• v. 15b "and the Lord will raise him up."

In James, the title "Lord" refers to both God and Jesus: →Kurios in James. Given the close association of Jesus with the power of healing in Christian belief (including calling on the name of Jesus in healing; cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14c), a reference to Jesus is likely here. It is also possible that James is intentionally ambiguous in order to suggest that Jesus and God share the divine name ("Lord"), and thus the divine power of healing.

13–18 Exhortations on Prayer, Proper Speech, and Physical and Spiritual Healing The passage focuses on prayer (Literary Devices Jas 5:13–18). After warning the reader that he must ask God in faith, not doubting (Jas 1:5–8), and that he must not ask wrongly (Jas 4:2–3), James here gives examples of proper, effective prayer.

The passage also relates to James' concern with proper speech: after giving many admonitions against improper speech (e.g., Jas 5:9,12), James here gives example of the proper use of speech in praying and singing. See also →Speech in James.

The passage presents a holistic view of illness and healing: here, these two elements are closely associated: physical illness and “spiritual illness” (sin) on the one hand, and physical healing and forgiveness of sin on the other, are closely linked. There is also a strong link between understanding the anointing ritual as providing healing (both spiritual and physical) in this life, and understanding the anointing and prayer as preparation for ultimate healing in the resurrection and eternal life. This holistic emphasis reflects the theme of wholeness and integrity found throughout the letter. See further →Perfection / Wholeness in James.

Catholic tradition has drawn out the meaning of Jas 5:14–15 in various ways, primarily through the development of the teaching on the sacrament of the anointing of the sick. The tradition has at various times emphasized the different aspects of James’ integral vision: spiritual healing (Origen, John Chrysostom, Council of Trent), physical healing (an early tradition of anointing by the laity, Vatican II’s emphasis on a broader understanding of healing), and the eschatological dimension (the traditional emphasis on “extreme unction” as preparation for eternal life). See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:14f; Theology Jas 5:14f.

Following this section, the letter’s final section is James’ exhortation to community members to turn back a straying fellow-believer (Jas 5:19–20). James thus reiterates his characteristic concern for harmony within the community. The history of interpretation generally interpreted this ambiguous passage to mean that a person who converted another from sin would in turn receive pardon of his own sins; this interpretation then took its place in a traditional list of ways in which one could seek pardon for one’s sins. See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:20c.

14c oil Importance and Meaning of Oil In ancient Mediterranean culture, olive oil was a staple of daily life and was associated with strength, cleanliness, honor, and good health.

Oil in Daily Life

• Olives and olive oil were major items of trade (e.g., Rv 18:13).
• Athletes used it for exercising (e.g., →Pliny Nat. 15.19).
• Anointing with oil after bathing was common (e.g., →Homer Il. 10.577–779).
• Olive oil was commonly used in daily life for cooking and for illumination in oil lamps (cf. Mt 25:3).
• →Pliny Nat. 15.7–8 alludes to its widespread use: "Nature (natura)…did not desire us to be sparing in the use of oil, and she has made it universal even among common people (promiscuum et volgo)" (Rackham 1968, 4:290–293).

Use in Worship

• →Pausanias Descr. 8.42.11 (pouring oil over sacrifices; Jones 1935, 4:116–117); 10.24.6 (anointing a stone near the grave of Achilles’ son; Jones 1935, 4:510–511).
• →Virgil Aen. 6.212–234: olive boughs and bowls of oil (fuso cratores olivo) used in a funeral ceremony (Fairclough and Goold 1999, 1:546–549).

Use as a Symbol of Triumph and Honor

• →Pliny Nat. 15.19 "The majesty of Rome has bestowed great honour on the olive-tree (oleae) by decorating our cavalry squadrons with wreaths of olive on July 15, and also when they are celebrating a minor triumph. Athens also crowns victorious athletes with olive wreaths (olea), and Greece the victors at Olympia with wreaths of wild olive (oleastro)" (Rackham 1968, 4:300–301).

Recognition of Oil's Medicinal Value

• →Pliny Nat. 15.19 "Olive-oil (oleo) has the property of imparting warmth to the body and protecting it against cold, and also that of cooling the head when heated" (Rackham 1968, 4:300–301; cf. →Hippocrates Acut. 65).
• →Pliny Nat. 23.69–79: Pliny lists a great variety of medicinal remedies involving olive oil or the various parts of the olive plant, either alone or in combination with other treatments. For example: sores are healed by chewing olive leaves and applying them; headaches are treated with a liniment of olive leaves and oil; the juice of the leaves is a common ingredient in salves; the ash of olive wood, mixed with axle-grease, cures tumors; white olives are used to treat burns (Jones 1951, 6:460–467).
• →Columella Rust. 7.5.18: Broken legs of both humans and sheep are wrapped in wool soaked with oil and wine and then bound in splints (Forster and Heffner 1954, 2:274–275).
• →Hippocrates Nat. mul. 7: A disease of the uterus is treated with Egyptian oil (elaion) soaked in wool (Potter 2012, 202–203).

14c anointing him with oil Connotations of Oil in Scripture

Uses and Connotations of Oil

The use of olive oil (Hebrew: šemen and yiṣhār; Greek: elaion) is well attested throughout the Scriptures.

• It was a general sign of wealth (Ez 16:13), health (Ps 104:15 [G-103:15] “oil to make their faces shine"), and happiness (Is 61:3 the “oil of gladness”; cf. Ps 133:2 [G-132:2: muron]).
• It was used in everyday cooking (1Kgs 17:12), for treating wounds (Is 1:6), and for lighting in homes (Mt 25:3–4) and in the Tabernacle (Ex 27:20).
• It was listed as an essential agricultural product (Dt 11:14).
• Anointing with oil was associated with cleanliness (Ru 3:3: anointing after bathing) and with God’s blessing. Cf. Ps 23:5 (G-22:5) “You set a table for me in front of my enemies; you anoint (lipainô) my head with oil; my cup overflows.”
• Sir 39:31 (G-39:26) lists it as one of the necessities (chreiai) of human life.

Anointing in Scripture

• Anointing with oil was also used in specifically ritual contexts: the anointing of a king (e.g., 1Sm 10:1), a priest (Ex 28:41), and a prophet (1Kgs 19:16). It also served for consecrating sacred objects (Gn 28:18; Lv 8:11). In these cultic contexts, the Hebrew verb mšḥ is used, translated in Greek with the verb chriô (or epicheô “pour upon”).
• According to Mk 6:13, Jesus' disciples "anointed (aleiphô) [the same verb used in Jas 5:14] with oil many who were sick and cured (therapeuô) them."

Natural Elements Combined with Supernatural Healing

Some OT passages combine prayers for supernatural healing with a use of natural remedies:

• The Lord promises to heal Hezekiah in response to his prayers (2Kgs 20:5–6; Is 38:5), but Isaiah also ordered: “Bring a poultice of figs and apply it to the boil for his recovery” (Is 38:21; cf. 2Kgs 20:7).
• A similar combination is found in the wisdom literature: Sir 38:9–12 “My son, when you are ill, do not delay, but pray to God, for it is he who heals…Then give the doctor (iatros) his place lest he leave; you need him too.”

In his own healings, Jesus occasionally makes use of natural elements: he uses saliva (Mk 7:33; 8:23; Jn 9:6) and often physical touch (Mk 1:41; 3:10; 5:28–31,41; 6:56; Lk 6:19). His disciples employed olive oil in their healings (Mk 6:13) and also physical touch (Acts 3:7; 5:15; 19:11–12).

14c–15a anointing + save — Anointing and Salvation in Second Temple Judaism James' link between the anointing ritual and eschatological salvation (Literary Devices Jas 5:15ab) reflects the Second Temple Jewish connection between anointing with oil and final salvation.

• →Apoc. Mos. 9.3; 13.1–2 (cf. Latin →L.A.E. 36.2 [oil of life = oleum vitae; Meyer 1878, 233]; 40–42; 40.1 [oil of mercy = oleum misericordiae; Meyer 1878, 25]): Adam, ill because of his sins, will receive a healing anointing with oil (Greek: elaion) from a tree in Paradise at the final resurrection (Levison 2023, 157–158; Tromp 2005, 130, 134; cf. other references to an olive tree in Paradise: →2 En. 8.4 [shorter recension]; →Gen. Rab. 33.6 ad Gn 8:11).
• →2 En. 22.8–10; cf. 56.2: Enoch’s anointing with "delightful oil" marks his transition from his earthly existence into becoming “like one of the glorious ones, and there was no observable difference" (OTP 1:138–139; Macaskill 2013, 102–103). See also →3 Bar. 15 (Greek): baskets of oil (elaion) as eschatological reward (OTP 1:677; Picard 1967, 95).
• →Jos. Asen. 8.5 (cf. 15.5): anointing with a “blessed ointment of incorruptibility (chrietai chrismati eulogêmenôᵢ aphtharsias)" (OTP 2:212; Philonenko 1968, 154); cf. →T. Adam 1.7 (OTP 1:993; Robinson 1982, 54–55).

14c oil Medicinal Uses of Oil in Second Temple Judaism The use of olive oil for medicinal and healing purposes was very common among Second Temple Jews:

• →Philo Somn. 2.58: olive oil strengthens and firms muscles (Colson and Whitaker 1934, 5:468–469).
• →Josephus A.J. 17.172 (→B.J. 1.657): Herod’s physicians bathe him in warm oil (Marcus and Wikgren 1963, 7:244–245).

Oil was used to drive out spirits who caused illness:

• →T. Sol. 18.33 "I am called Rhyx Anoster. I unleash hysteria and cause pains in the bladder. If anyone mashes up the seeds of laurel into pure oil (elaion katharon) and massages (the body with it), saying, 'I adjure you by Marmaraoth, I retreat immediately'" (OTP 1:981; McCown 1922, 57–58*); cf. →T. Sol. 18.34.

14c anointing him with oil Type of Oil and Method of Anointing

Type of Oil

Christian tradition distinguishes different types of oil for liturgical use.

• →Glossa ord. ad loc. cites a canonical rule: "A priest (presbyter) in the Lord's Supper should carry with him three flasks: one for chrism, another with oil for anointing catechumens, a third for the sick according to the apostolic saying (ad infirmos iuxta Apostolicam sententiam), that whenever someone is sick, he should bring in the presbyters (1603, 6:1303). This is incorrectly ascribed to the Council of Meaux (Concilium Meldense); the decree is found rather in →Burchard of Worms Decr. 75 (PL 140:741). A variant of the rule is found in the Carolingian Capitula ecclesiastica (→Cap. presb. 17), which instructs a priest (presbyter) to carry two flasks, one for chrism and the other for anointing catechumens or the sick, citing Jas 5:14 (1835, 161).
• →Hugh of Saint Victor Sacr. 2.15.1 "There are three kinds (genera) of holy oil. The first is the oil of anointing (oleum unctionis), the oil of the principal chrism (oleum principalis chrismatis), and the oil of the sick (oleum infirmorum)" (Deferrari 1951, 518; Berndt 2008, 545). See also →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.23.2(128).
• →Mogila Orth. Conf. 118 clarifies that the oil for the sick should be pure, "not prepared with any mixtures" (in contrast to the chrism oil; CCFCT 1:609–610; Karmires 1968, 2:644).

→CCC 1294 distinguishes the meaning of the oils used in the different sacramental anointings.

• "The pre-baptismal anointing with the oil of catechumens signifies cleansing and strengthening" (cf. →Const. ap. 7.22; 7.42–44; →Cyril of Jerusalem Cat. myst. 2.3; →Acts Thom. 120–121; →Ps.-Clement Recogn. 3.67.4).
• "The post-baptismal anointing with sacred chrism in Confirmation and ordination is the sign of consecration." The Eastern Churches call this chrismation; it occurs immediately after baptism (cf. →Const. ap. 7.22; →Cyril of Jerusalem Cat. myst. 3.1; →Tertullian Bapt. 7; →CCC 1241).
• "The anointing of the sick expresses healing and comfort."

Method of Anointing

By medieval times, the sick were anointed on various parts of the body as representative of the various senses:

• →Florence Exs. Deo "He is to be anointed on these parts: on the eyes on account of sight (propter visum), on the ears on account of hearing, on the nostrils on account of smelling, on the mouth on account of taste and speech, on the hands on account of touch (in manibus propter tactum), on the feet on account of movement, on the loins on account of the pleasure seated there" (→DzH 1324).
• →Aquinas ST Sup. 32 ad. 6 "Now all our knowledge has its origin in the senses. And, since the remedy for sin should be applied where sin originates in us first, for that reason the places of the five senses (loca quinque sensuum) are anointed: the eyes, on account of the sight, the ears on account of hearing, the nostrils on account of the smell, the mouth on account of the taste, the hands on account of the touch which is keenest in the finger tips (in some places too the loins are anointed on account of the appetite), and the feet are anointed on account of the motive power of which they are the chief instrument" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2665).
• In the revised Roman ritual, the sick person is anointed on the forehead and hands.
• The Orthodox Byzantine rite includes anointing on the forehead, chest, hands, and feet (cf. →Critopoulos Conf. 13.4; CCFCT 1:529; Karmires 1968, 2:544).

14c anointing him with oil Medicinal Uses of Oil in the Rabbinic Tradition Rabbinic traditions also recognize the medicinal properties of oil:

•  →m. Šabb. 14.4: anointing painful loins with oil (šemen) (Cohen et al. 2022, 2:413; Albeck 1953, 2:52);
•  →y. Ber. 1.2: use of a compress made of old wine and oil wine and oil (šemen) are used to make an ointment to rub on a sick person (Guggenheimer 2000, 1:87);
•  →b. Sanh. 101a "One may anoint and massage the intestines on the Sabbath" (Neusner 2005).

See also Ancient Texts Jas 5:14c; Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14c; Peritestamental Literature Jas 5:14c.

13–20 Connection between Conversion and Healing As part of the generally assumed connection between illness and sin, conversion and health, many texts parallel James in linking healing (Jas 5:14–16) with references to repentance or conversion from sin (Jas 5:19–20).

• →Test. Dom. 1.24 (prayer over the oil for healing): “send on this oil (mšḥ’), which is the type of your fatness, the delivering [power] of your good compassion, that it may deliver those who labour and heal those who are sick, and sanctify those who return (mtpnyn), when they approach to your faith; for you are mightily and [to be] praised for ever and ever" (Cooper and MacLean 1902, 78; Rahmani 1899, 48)
• →Polycarp Phil. 6.1 identifies caring for the sick (episkeptomenoi pantas astheneis) and "turning back those who have gone astray (epistrephontes ta apopeplanêmena)" as duties of the presbyters (presbuteroi; Ehrman 2003, 1:340–341).

The language of physical healing can be used to describe repentance and conversion:

• →Const. ap. 2.14.11 "Now we ought to assist those who are with us (variant reading: 'those who are sick') and are in danger, and fall, and, as far as lies in our power, to reduce them to sobriety by our exhortations, and so save them from death (hugiazein autous kai ruesthai ek thanatou)" (ANF 7:401; Metzger 1985, 1:176–177).

13–18 Parallel with 1 Clement Several themes and some specific vocabulary occurring in Jas 5 appears in a prayer recorded in →1 Clem. 59.4 (Ehrman 2003, 1:142–143):

• "Save (sôᵢzô) those of us who are in affliction" (cf. Jas 5:15a: sôᵢzô);
• "raise (egeirô) those who have fallen" (cf. Jas 5:15b: egeirô);
• "heal (iaomai) those who are sick (astheneis)" (cf. Jas 5:14a: astheneô; Jas 5:16b: iaomai);
• "set straight (epistrephô) those among your people who are going astray (planaô)" (cf. Jas 5:19: planaô, epistrephô);
• "raise up (anistêmi) the weak (astheneis)" (cf. Jas 5:14a: astheneô; Jas 5:15b: egeirô).

Some scholars posit that 1 Clement is dependent on James, but the relationship may also be seen as a common reliance on early Christian vocabulary and concerns (see Bemmerl 2023, 34–35).

14f Foundational Text for the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick? →Trent Extr. unct. taught that James "recommended to the faithful and promulgated (fidelibus commendatum ac promulgatum)" the sacrament of "extreme unction" in Jas 5:14–15 (→DzH 1695; cf. Theology Jas 5:14f). The exact relationship between this passage and the sacrament, however, has been a subject of controversy within the tradition.

Witness of the Carolingian Councils

Several decrees from the Carolingian era seek to regulate the practice of anointing the sick, perhaps as a response to the custom of lay anointing. Reference is made to Jas 5:14–15:

• →Chalon (813 AD) can. 48: "According to the example (secundum…documentum) of the blessed apostle James, with whom the decrees (decreta) of the fathers agree, the sick should be anointed by the priests (presbyteris) with oil which is blessed by the bishops (oleo, quod a episcopis benedicitur). [Quotation of Jas 5:14–15]. Medicine (medicina) of this kind, which heals the weaknesses of body and soul (quae animae corporisque medetur languoribus) is not to be taken lightly" (Werminghoff 1906, 283).
• →Pavia (850 AD) ch. 8 states that Jas 5:14–15 commends (commendat) the sacrament (sacramentum) (Hartmann 1984, 223).

An Early Reference to Anointing as a Sacrament

• →Peter Damian Serm. 69 cites Jas 5:14 when he lists the anointing of the sick (unctio infirmorum) as the third sacrament (sacramentum) (PL 144:899). Peter lists a total of twelve sacraments. The →Glossa ord. ad loc. reproduces Peter's quotation (1603, 6:1302).

Instituted by Christ or the Apostles?

Instituted by the Apostles

• →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.23.3(129).1 "We read that this sacrament of anointing of the sick was instituted by the Apostles" (Hoc sacramentum unctionis infirmorum ab Apostolis institutum legitur) [quotation of Jas 5:14–15 follows] (Silano 2010, 4:136; Brady 1981, 2:391). So too →Hugh of Saint Victor Sacr. 2.15.2; →Bonaventure Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.2). Bonaventure clarifies his view that the apostles did not institute the sacrament on their own, but were led by the Holy Spirit, referring to Jn 16:12–13, "But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth" (Helllmann et al. 2016, 362–365; Collegium S. Bonaventurae 1889, 4:590–592).

Instituted by Christ

• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 29.3 (= →Aquinas Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.2.3): On the question, "Whether this sacrament was instituted by Christ (institutum a Christo)," Thomas responds that there are two opinions. "For some hold that this sacrament and Confirmation were not instituted by Christ Himself, but were left by Him to be instituted by the apostles; for the reason that these two sacraments, on account of the plenitude of grace conferred in them, could not be instituted before the mission of the Holy Ghost in perfect plenitude…others hold that Christ himself instituted all the sacraments, but that He Himself published some, which present greater difficulties to our belief, while he reserved some to be published (promulganda) by the apostles, such as Extreme Unction and Confirmation." Thomas, following his teacher Albert the Great, holds to this latter opinion, explaining, "The Master [Peter Lombard] says it was instituted by the apostles because its institution was made known to us (promulgata) by the teaching of the apostles" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2655).

Orthodox Views

• →Jeremias II Rep. Aug. Conf. 7 "The anointing of oil, perhaps, is spoken of by some other apostles, but it is clearly handed down (prodêlôs…paradedotai) by St. James the apostle in his catholic epistle where he says: [quotation of Jas 5:13–15 follows]" (CCFCT 1:415; Karmires 1968, 1:460). Jeremias II was patriarch of Constantinople.
• →Critopoulos Conf. 13.1–2 (Peri euchelaiou "On Holy Unction"): Critopoulos, later Patriarch of Alexandria, teaches that this sacramental rite (teletê mustikê) takes its origin from Jesus' commandment (Mk 6:13). "And this rite was entrusted (epetrapê) by the apostles to the whole church," quoting Jas 5:14–15. →Conf. 13.3 cites Jas 5:15c in support of his view that sickness is often caused by sin (CCFCT 1:528; Karmires 1968, 2:543–544).
• →Mogila Orth. Conf. 117: The seventh mystery of the church is the holy oil. "This was instituted (diatetagmenon) by Christ himself [referencing Mk 6:13]…The same was afterwards received by the universal church (holê hê Ekklêsia), as a solemn custom, as appears from the Epistle of James" (referencing Jas 5:14–15; CCFCT 1:609; Karmires 1968, 2:643).

• →Dositheus Conf. 15 "the holy oil or sacrament of unction is spoken of in Mark, and is expressly witnessed to by the Lord's brother" (CCFCT 1:625; Karmires 1968, 2:758).

Catholic Denials that James Refers to the Sacrament

• →Cajetan Ep. Pauli al. ap. ad loc. "Neither from the words nor from the effect (nec ex verbis, nec ex effectu) do these words speak of the sacramental anointing (sacramentali unctione) of Extreme Unction: but rather of the anointing (unctione) which the Lord Jesus instituted (instituit) in the Gospel to be used by the disciples for the sick. For the text does not speak of one who is sick unto death (infirmatur quis ad mortem), but one who is sick absolutely, and says that the effect is the alleviation of the sick person, and speaks of the remission of sins only conditionally (conditionaliter), while Extreme Unction is given only at the moment of death (articulum mortis) and tends directly (directe tendit) (as its form implies) to the remission of sins. Besides this, James orders that many presbyters be called to pray and then to anoint one sick person, which is foreign (alienum) to the rite of Extreme Unction" (1639, 5:370).

Reformation Denials That James Refers to a Sacrament

• →Luther Capt. Bab.: After noting that the apostolic authorship of James is disputed, Luther writes, "But even if the apostle James did write it, I still would say, that no apostle has the right on his own authority to institute a sacrament (sua autoritate sacramentum instituere), that is, to give a divine promise (divina promissio) with a sign (signum) attached. For this belongs to Christ alone" (LW 36:118; WA 6:568).
• →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.18, while denying that this passage establishes the sacrament of extreme unction, argues that even if James referred to a sacramental rite in apostolic times, that rite would no longer apply after the time of the apostles. A sacrament must be "a ceremony appointed by God (caeremonia a Deo instituta), and have a promise from God" that is clearly applied to later generations. Thus extreme unction is not a sacrament (4.19.20; Beveridge 1994, 2:636; Baum et al. 1864, 1080).
• →Melanchthon Apol. Conf. Aug. 13.3 defines a sacrament as "rites which have the command of God (ritus, qui habent mandatum Dei) and to which the promise of grace (promissio gratiae) has been added." →Apol. Conf. Aug. 13.6 "Confirmation and Extreme Unction are rites received from the Fathers which not even the Church requires as necessary to salvation, because they do not have God's command" (Bente and Dau 1921, 308–311).

Catholic Responses

• →Eck Ench. 12 "It does not seem unsuitable (non videtur absonum) for an apostle, with the authority of Christ (authoritate Christi) and the command of the Holy Spirit, to institute a sacrament. Yet even if Christ instituted it, still James published it (At si etiam Christus illud instituit, tamen Iacobus promulgavit)" (Fraenkel 1979, 144).
• →Trent Extr. unct. ch. 3 "On no account, then, should any attention be paid to those who, contradicting the plain and lucid doctrine (apertam et dilucidam sententiam) of the apostle James, teach that this anointing is a human invention (figmentum humanum) or a rite received from the Fathers that has no mandate from God and no promise of grace (nec mandatum Dei nec promissionem Dei); or to those who assert that this anointing has already ceased, as if it referred only to the gift of healing in the primitive Church (primitiva Ecclesia); or to those who maintain that the rite and usage observed in the holy Roman Church in the administration of this sacrament are contrary to the doctrine of the apostle James (Iacobi Apostoli sententiae repugnare) and, therefore, must be changed" (→DzH 1699).
• →Trent Extr. unct. can. 1 "If anyone says that extreme unction is not truly and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ our Lord (sacramentum a Christo Domino nostro institutum) and promulgated (promulgatum) by the blessed apostle James but only a rite received from the Fathers or a human invention, let him be anathema" (→DzH 1716). Cf. cans. 2–3 (→DzH 1717–1718).

14b presbyters Historical Background and Debate on the Ministers of the Anointing

Duties of Presbyters in the Early Church

Authority of the Presbyters

• For →Ignatius Smyrn. 8.1, the presbyter has a defined office in the Church, subordinate to the bishop. Ignatius admonishes his readers, "All of you should follow the bishop as Jesus Christ follows the Father; and follow the presbytery (presbuterion) as you would the apostles" (Ehrman 2003, 1:302–303).
• →Eusebius of Caesarea Hist. eccl. 3.39.2–5 (Schott 2019, 164; Schwartz et al. 1999, 1:286–288); cf. 5:20.4 uses the term, citing Papias, to refer to the immediate disciples of Jesus' apostles: they have a special authority as the preservers of authentic apostolic tradition. 

Duties of Presbyters

• →Polycarp Phil. 6.1 identifies caring for all the sick (episkeptomenoi pantas astheneis) as one of the duties of presbyters (Ehrman 2003, 1:340–341); other early Christian Church orders assign this duty to deacons and bishops (see →Trad. ap. 34; →Const. ap. 3.19; →Can. Hipp. 24; →Test. Dom. 2.21).
• →Polycarp Phil. 6.1 lists further duties of the presbyters, many of them paralleling themes in James: "turning back those who have gone astray (epistrephontes ta apopeplanêmena)" (cf. Jas 5:19); not neglecting the widow and the orphan (cf. Jas 1:27), or the poor (cf. →Rich and Poor in James; "abstaining from all anger" (cf. Jas 1:19–20), from "prejudice (prosôpolêpsia)" (cf. Jas 2:1), and from "unfair judgment (krisis adikê)"; being "not severe in judgment (krisis)" (Ehrman 2003, 1:340–341). See also →Judging in James.

Debate on the Identity of the Presbyters

James Refers to Elder, More Respected Men of the Church

• →Bede Ep. cath. ad loc. understands the presbyters as older members of the church community, calling them seniores. A sick person should not report the reason for his weakness "to the younger and less learned (iuniores minusque doctos), lest by chance he receive from them some harmful advice or council" (Hurst 1985, 61; Hurst 1983, 221).
• →Glossa ord. ad loc.: In an interlinear gloss, the Glossa reproduces Bede's comment quoted above (1603, 6:1301–1302).
• →Luther Capt. Bab. held that James’ presbyters (presbuteroi) were not necessarily priests or ministers: “We may suspect that the apostle desired that the older, graver men (seniores et graviores) in the church to visit the sick" (LW 36:120; WA 6:569).
• →Zwingli Exp. Jac. ad loc. identifies the presbyters as the ones in the church who excel the others in authority and prudence (authoritate et prudentia), as well as in the sanctity and the innocent manner of their lives (1533, 49).
• →Calvin Comm. Jac. ad loc. rejects the Catholic belief that the presbyters are priests; rather they were pastors and other "men of weight and of proved integrity (gravibus et probatae integritatis)" (Owen 1855, 356; Erichson and Reuss 1896, 431); cf. →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.21 (Beveridge 1994, 2:638; Baum 1864, 1080).

Priests Should Be the Ministers of the Anointing of the Sick

Those insisting that the ministers of the sacrament of the anointing of the sick are priests often refer to Jas 5:14–15 as well:

• Isaac of Antioch (mid-5^th c.) insists that the faithful should receive their anointings from priests (→Meyendorff 2009, 38).
• →Chalon can. 48 "According to the example of the blessed apostle James, which also agrees with the decrees of the Fathers, the sick should be anointed by the presbyters (a presbyteris) with oil that has been blessed by the bishop (oleo, quod ab episcopis benedicitur) [quotation of Jas 5:14–15]" (Werminghoff 1906, 283).

• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 31.1 "Remission of sins is given in this sacrament. But laymen (laici) have not the power to forgive sins" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2661).
• →Mogila Orth. Conf. 118 "this mystery, and everything belonging to it, [must] be only performed by priests, and none others" (CCFCT 609; Karmires 1968, 2:644); cf. →Critopoulos Conf. 13.4.

Does James Refer to Anointing by Clergy or by Lay People?

Historical Examples of Anointing of the Sick by Laity and Clergy

Within the Christian tradition, one sees evidence of anointings of the sick by both lay people and clergy. Following are some examples of the variety of practice:

• →Tertullian Scap. 4.6 reports that the Roman Emperor Severus was grateful to a certain Christian Proculus "who had cured him once by means of oil (per oleum aliquando curaverat)" (Arbesmann et al. 1950, 158; Kroymann and Bulhart 1957, 14).
• Palladius reports the use of blessed oil for healing among Egyptian ascetics: →Palladius Hist. Laus. 12.1: The ascetic Benjamin had "the gift of healing (charisma iamatôn), so that every one on whom he laid his hands or whom he blessed and gave oil (elaion eulogêsas edidou) [or 'gave oil that he had blessed'] was cured of all sickness" (Meyer 1965, 46; Butler 1904, 2:35). →Hist. Laus. 18.11: Macarius of Alexandria healed a paralyzed girl by rubbing her with holy oil and praying; cf. 18.22.
• →Jerome Vita Hil. reports that Hilarion cured people suffering from bites from poisonous snakes and animals with blessed oil (benedicto oleo) (22 [32].5–6; NPNF² 6:311; Morales and Leclerc 2007, 274) and saved some people from death by anointing them with oil (unctione olei) (32 [44].2; NPNF² 6:314; Morales and Leclerc 2007, 294).
• →Vita Genov. 45, 48, 51: According to the Life of Genevieve (Genovefa), the consecrated virgin and patroness of Paris (ca. 420–500) healed diseases and drove out demons using oil blessed by a bishop (McNamara and Halborg 1992, 34–36). McNamara and Halborg translate numerous accounts of use of oil in healings by holy women in Merovingian Gaul, including miraculous cures at their tombs: Monegund, widow and recluse of Tours (58–59); Eustadiola, widow of Bourges (110–111); Glodesind, abbess of Metz (152–153); Gertrude, abbess of Nivelles (232); Anstrude, abbess of Laon (302). On healings by holy men see pp. 178, 182. →Vita Genov. 51 (52) "Often she restored the sick to health by rubbing them with holy oil (oleo benedicto)" (McNamara and Halborg 1992, 35; Krusch 1896, 236).
• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 31.1 obj. 2 "we read of certain fathers in Egypt that they sent the oil to the sick, and that these were healed (oleum ad infirmos transmittebant et sanabantur). It is also related of the Blessed Genevieve that she anointed the sick with oil (oleo infirmos ungebat)" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2661).

The Following Witnesses Refer Specifically to Jas 5:14–15

• →Innocent I Ep. Dec. 8 "There is no doubt that this anointing ought to be interpreted or understood of the sick faithful, who can be anointed with the holy oil of chrism (sancto oleo chrismatis), which, prepared by a bishop, is permitted not only to priests, but also to all as Christians for anointing in their own necessity or in the necessity of their (people) (quod ab episcopo confectum non solum sacerdotibus, sed et omnibus uti christianis licet, in sua aut in suorum necessitate unguendum)" (→DzH 216; Cabié 1973, 30).
• →Bede Ep. cath. "now the custom (consuetudo) of the Church holds that those who are sick be anointed with consecrated oil by the presbyters (oleo consecrato ungantur a presbiteris), with the prayer that goes with this, that they may be cured (sanentur). Not only the presbyters, but as Pope Innocent writes, even for all Christians it is lawful (licit) to use the same oil (eodem oleo) for anointing at their own necessity or that of their [relatives] (suam aut suorum necissitatem), but the oil may be consecrated only by bishops (non nisi ab episcopis icet confici). For what he [i.e., James] says, 'with oil in the name of the Lord,' means with oil consecrated (consecrato) in the name of the Lord or at least that when they anoint the sick person they ought also to invoke (invocare) the name of the Lord over him at the same time" (Hurst 1985, 61–62; Hurst 1983, 221).

Caesarius of Arles quotes Jas 5:14–15 three times, instructing his congregation on the anointing of the sick with oil. Note the differences in the third reference:

•  →Serm. 13.3 “a sick man should receive the Body and Blood of Christ (corpus et sanguinem Christi), humbly and devoutly ask the presbyters (a presbyteris) for blessed oil (oleum benedictum), and anoint his body with it (corpusculum suum ungueat)…[quotation of Jas 5:14–15]" (Mueller 1956, 1:77; Morin 1953, 1:66). 
• →Serm. 184.5: A sick person should "hasten to church and receive the Body and Blood of Christ, devoutly to anoint both themselves and their children with blessed oil (oleo benedicto et se et suos fideliter perungerent)" (Mueller 1973, 3:482; Morin 1953, 2:751).
• →Serm. 19.5 "Let him receive the Body and Blood of Christ, be anointed by the presbyters with consecrated oil (oleo benedicto a presbyteris inunguatur) [or 'be anointed with oil blessed by the presbyters'], and ask the presbyters and deacons to pray over him in Christ's name" (Mueller 1956, 1:101; Morin 1953, 1:90). →Serm. 19 is expressly drawn from the "Preaching of St. Augustine to the People," and so perhaps reflects the different customs of Augustine's church in the early 400s in Hippo, and Caesarius' church in the early 500s in southern Gaul.

Ouen records St. Eligius' sermon warning against various pagan practices, including an admonition to the sick faithful to avoid seeking out sorcerers or magicians or “diabolical phylacteries."

• →Ouen Vita Elig. 2.16 “But let the invalid confide solely in the mercy of God and take the body and blood of Christ with faith and devotion and ask the Church faithfully for blessing and oil (oleumque benedictum), with which he might anoint his body in the name of Christ and, according to the apostle, ‘the prayer of faith will save the sick man and the Lord will raise him up (allevabit)' (Jas 5:15). And he will not only receive health for the body but for the soul (non solum corporis, sed etiam animae sanitatem recipiet) and what the Lord promised in the Gospel will be fulfilled saying: ‘For whatever you ask in prayer, you will receive if you have faith’ (Mt 21:22)" (McNamara 2000, 158; Krusch 1902, 707).

This warning against pagan practices and the appeal to anointing appear verbatim in →Ps.-Augustine Rect. cath. 5 (PL 40:1172–1173). It is notable that Ouen's quotation of James omits the reference to anointing with oil, and focuses on the efficacy of the prayer of faith.

• →Augustine of Hippo Civ. 22.8 "I know a certain virgin in Hippo who was immediately cured of a demon when she anointed herself with oil (se oleo perunxisset) into which had fallen the tears of a priest who was praying for her" (Babcock 2013, 2:512; Dombart and Kalb 1955, 2:821).

Distinguishing Sacramental and Non-sacramental Anointings

• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 31 ad. 1 recognizes lay anointings for the purpose of healing, but holds that they are not sacramental. "These unctions were not sacramental. It was due to the devotion (devotio) of the recipients of the unction, and to the merits of those who anointed them that they procured the effects of bodily health (effectus sanitatis corporalis) through the 'grace of healing' (1Cor 12:9) but not through sacramental grace (per gratiam sanitatum, non per gratiam sacramentalem)" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2662).
• →Lapide Comm. Jac. cites Domingo de Soto and Bellarmine in holding that the anointings reported by Innocent and the Egyptian ascetics refer to non-sacramental anointings, where the oil used had not been blessed by a bishop (Crampon 1891, 20:215).

For more, see →Ecclesiastical Vocabulary among the First Christian Communities: episkopoi, presbuteroi, and diakonoi.

14c anointing him with oil Various Applications

Warning against Non-Christian Methods of Healing

Caesarius and Ouen refer to this passage within a polemical context: they warn sick members of their congregation to not seek healing by employing non-Christian methods, but instead to come to the church to receive the Body and Blood of Christ and for anointing. Listed among the non-Christian practices to be avoided are:

• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 13.3 "charmers (praecantatores), fountains, trees, diabolical phylacteries (diabolica fylacteria), sorcerers, soothsayers, seers and oracles (caraios aut aruspices et divinos vel sortilogos)" (Mueller 1956, 1:77; Morin 1953, 1:66–67).
• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 19.4: consulting sorcerers, seers, magicians; hanging phylacteries or charms (filacteria aut ligaturas) on themselves or their possessions (Mueller 1956, 1:101; Morin 1953, 1:90).
• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 184.4: summoning magicians and soothsayers, wearing superstitious signs, fumigating (fumigare) houses, incantations for sick children (Mueller 1973, 3:481–482; Morin 1953, 2:750–751).
• →Ouen Vita Elig. 2.16: seeking out sorcerers or magicians, using “diabolical phylacteries (diabolica filacteria)" (McNamara 2000, 158; Krusch 1902, 707).

One should be cured from such practices:

• →Seleucia (554 AD) can. 19: This "Nestorian" Council declares that Christians who have fallen into pagan practices of magic may seek healing through various means, including "the oil of prayer blessed by priests" (Chabot 1902, 106 [Syriac], 363–364 [French]; cf. →Puller 1910, 375–376).
• Cf. also →Cyril of Alexandria Ador. cult. 6: Cyril exhorts the sick to avoid calling on demonic powers, but rather to call on the name of the Lord, citing Jas 5:14–15 (PG 68:472).

Charismatic / Pentecostal and Reformed Interpretations

• Charismatic, Pentecostal, and other Christians traditions that accept the Church's ongoing authority to perform miraculous healings regularly refer to this passage for support of their views (→Allison 2013, 744–745).
• →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.18, in contrast, argues that the gift of healing was given only at the time of the apostles, to promote the preaching of the gospel, but it ceased after the apostolic age (Beveridge 1994, 2:636; Baum et al. 1864, 1079).
• →Calvin Comm. Jac. ad loc. admits that it was a sacramentum (sacramentum) in the time of Jesus' apostles. He holds it as evident that supernatural healings no longer occur, and this shows that the gift of healing (donum sanationis) and thus the sacrament was meant to be temporary (temporale) (Owen 1855, 355–356; Reuss and Erichson 1896, 431). The Reformed tradition follows Calvin's teaching.

Symbolic and Sacramental Interpretations

• →Cat. Matt. Marc. ad Mk 6:13: The Catena quotes Jas 5:14–15 in its explication of Mk 6:13, "Therefore, the oil (elaion) used in anointing indicates (sêmainei) also the mercy (eleon) that comes from God, and the healing (iasis) of the disease, and the illumination (phôtismon) of the heart, for it is manifest to anyone anywhere that prayer brings about (enêrgei) everything, and the oil, so I suppose, is a symbol (sumbolon) of these things" (Lamb 2012, 294; Cramer 1844, 1:324).
• →Ps.-Hilary of Arles Tract. Jac. ad. loc. "by oil, the yieldingness of mercy is signified (misericordiae indulgentia designatur)" (McNally 1973, 75).
• →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.18: The oil used for healing and the clay Jesus used to heal a blind man (Jn 9:6) were not "instruments of the cure, but only symbols (curationis organum, sed symbolum) to remind the ignorant whence this great virtue proceeded, and prevent them from ascribing the praise to the apostles." Oil is a common symbol of the Holy Spirit and his gifts (Beveridge 1994, 2:636; Baum et al. 1864, 1079).
• →Zwingli Exp. Jac. ad loc. "By the name 'oil' or 'anointing' we certainly understand every service of love (officium charitatis) that one can devote to sick" (1533, 49).

The later Catholic tradition understands this symbolism sacramentally:

• →Trent Extr. unct. 1 "the anointing very aptly represents the grace of the Holy Spirit with which the soul of the sick is invisibly anointed (invisibiliter anima aegrotantis inungitur)" (→DzH 1695).
• →Lapide Comm. Jac. ad loc. comments that the anointing is indeed a sacrament, since a sacrament is defined as "a visible sign conferring invisible grace (signum visibile, conferens gratiam invisibilem)" (Crampon 1891, 20:214).

14c in the name of the Lord Reference to Consecrating the Oil, or to Invoking the Lord's Name?

• →Bede Ep. cath. ad loc. “For what he [i.e., James] says, ‘with oil in the name of the Lord,’ means with oil consecrated (consecrato) in the name of the Lord or at least that when they anoint the sick person they ought to invoke the name of the Lord over him (nomen domini super eum invocare) at the same time" (Hurst 1985, 62; Hurst 1983, 221).
• →Glossa ord. ad loc.:  The interlinear gloss to nomine Domini reads nomen Domini invocetur (1603, 6:1301–1302).

14f SACRAMENTOLOGY

Promulgation of the Anointing of the Sick

Roman Catholic doctrine teaches that Jesus instituted the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick (traditionally known as “Extreme Unction”), and that James "promulgated" the sacrament (Jas 5:14–15).

• →Trent Extr. unct. “This sacred anointing of the sick was instituted (instituta est) by Christ our Lord as a true and proper sacrament (vere et proprie sacramentum) of the New Testament. It is alluded to indeed (quidem insinuatum) by Mark [cf. Mk 6:13], but it is recommended to the faithful and promulgated (fidelibus commendatum ac promulgatum) by James the apostle and brother of the Lord” (→DzH 1695).
• →Inquisition Lament. 48 condemns the "modernist" teaching that "In his Epistle (Ch. 5:14–15) James did not intend to promulgate a Sacrament of Christ but only commend a pious custom (non intendit promulgare aliquod sacramentum Christi, sed commendare pium aliquem morem)" (→DzH 3448).
• →CCC 1510 “the apostolic Church has its own rite for the sick, attested (testatur) by St. James: [quotation of Jas 5:14–15]. Tradition has recognized in this rite (i.e., Jas 5:14–15) one of the seven sacraments” (cf. →CCC 1499–1532).

The Recipient of the Anointing

Development of the Sacrament

The Church recognizes a historical development in the understanding of this sacrament:

• →CCC 1512 "From ancient times in the liturgical traditions of both East and West, we have testimonies to the practice of anointings of the sick with blessed oil. Over the centuries the Anointing of the Sick was conferred more and more exclusively on those at the point of death. Because of this it received the name 'Extreme Unction.' Notwithstanding this evolution (evolutione) the liturgy has never failed to beg the Lord that the sick person may recover his health if it would be conducive to his salvation" (referencing →Trent Extr. unct. 2 [→DzH 1696]).

Extreme Unction

By the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church tended to understand the “sick” as referring exclusively to those who were dying; the ritual based on this passage was thus called “Extreme Unction” (extrema unctio), that is, the last anointing.

• →Florence Exs. Deo "This sacrament may not be given except to a sick person whose life is feared for (de cuius morte timetur)" (→DzH 1324).
• →Trent Extr. unct. ch. 3 "this anointing is to be administered to the sick, especially (praesertim) to those who are so dangerously ill that they seem near to death (qui tam periculose decumbunt, ut in exitu vitae constituti videantur); hence it is called the sacrament of the dying (sacramentum exeuntium)" (→DzH 1698). Trent argues that the sacrament is a strong safeguard against the attacks of the devil, which are particularly strong at the end of a person's life (→Trent Extr. unct. pref.; →DzH 1694).

Vatican II

The Second Vatican Council sought to return to a broader understanding and use of the sacrament.

• →Vatican II SC 73 “’Extreme unction,’” which may also and more fittingly be called ‘anointing of the sick’ (unctio infirmorum), is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death (in extremo vitae). Hence, as soon as any one of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age (in periculo mortis propter infirmitatem vel senium), the fitting time (tempus opportunum) for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived" (quoted in →CCC 1514).
• →CCC 1515 specifies that a person may receive the sacrament more than once if; for example, he recovers after an anointing and then again becomes seriously ill. “It is fitting to receive the Anointing of the Sick just prior to a serious operation. The same holds for the elderly whose frailty becomes more pronounced.”

14c in the name of the Lord Healing in the Name of the Lord Calling on the name of the Lord, or referring to the power and authority represented by the Lord's name (Grammar Jas 5:14c), forms a regular part of Christian healing (Acts 3:6; 4:10), exorcism (Mk 9:38; 16:17; Lk 10:17), and baptism (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). See Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:10b; Christian Tradition Jas 5:14c; →Christology in James.

14c anointing him with oil Olives and Olive Oil in the Islamic Tradition The Qur’an and subsequent Islamic tradition continue biblical traditions that recognize both the everyday health benefits of olives and olive oil and employ them as eschatological symbols (see Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14c; Peritestamental Literature Jas 5:14c; Jewish Tradition Jas 5:14c).

• →Qur’an 23.20 "And We send down water…With it We grow for you Gardens of date-palms and vines…Also a tree springing out of Mount Sinai, which produces oil, and relish for those who use it for food."
• →Qur’an 24.35 “God is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp; the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the East nor of the West, whose oil is well-nigh Luminous, though fire scarce touch it: light upon light!" →Al-Ghazali Mishkat comments on this verse, identifying the olive tree with logical, reflective thinking, and olive oil with the transcendental prophetic spirit of prophets and “friends of God” (Buchman 1998, 40–41).
• →Qur’an 95.1–3 associates the fig, the olive, Mount Sinai, and "this city of security" (a reference to Mecca).
• In the hadith collection, →ibn Majah Sunan 4.29.3319: "It was narrated from ‘Umar that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: 'Season (your food) with olive oil and anoint yourselves with it, for it comes from a blessed tree'" (Khattab and al-Khattab 2007, 4:351).

10–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: Special and General Feasts: Prophets; one of three reading options.
• →BL: For the sick (or Jas 5:10–16).
• →BL: For rain (or Jas 5:16–20).
• →BL: For oil for the sick.

13–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: For confession.
• →BL: Julian June 14, Feast of the Prophet Elisha. 
• →RML: Saturday, Week 7, Year 2.
• →RCL: Proper 21, Year B.

13–16 Use in Lectionary

• →RML (1570): Votive Mass for the sick.

12–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: Julian October 29, Saints Abramios and Mary of Edessa.