14c–15a anointing + save — Link between Anointing and Eschatological Salvation Two passages from the Iliad echo James’ allusions to eschatological salvation:

• →Homer Il. 16.677–680 “Immediately then he [i.e., Apollo] lifted up noble Sarpedon out of the range of the missiles and, carrying him far away, bathed him in the streams of the river, and anointed him with ambrosia (chrisen t' ambrosiêᵢ), and clothed him with immortal raiment (ambrota heimata), and gave him to swift conveyers, to the twin brothers Sleep and Death, to bring with them, and they set him down speedily in the rich land of wide Lycia” (Murray and Wyatt 1999, 2:212–213).
• →Homer Il. 23.184–187 “So he [i.e., Achilles] spoke threatening, but no dogs were busy with Hector [i.e., his body], but the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite, kept dogs from him by day and by night alike, and with oil she anointed him (chrien elaiôᵢ), rose-sweet, ambrosial, so that Achilles might not tear him as he dragged him” (Murray and Wyatt 1999, 2:506–507).

16c Greatly prevails the prayer of a righteous [man when it is] at work Belief that God Hears the Righteous James seems to assume that the righteous person's (G: dikaios) prayer is effective in that God hears it. Cf. Prv 15:29 "The Lord is far from the wicked, but hears the prayer of the just (M: ṣaddîqîm; G: dikaioi)."

16a Confess the failings to one another Confession of Sins at Qumran

• →1QS 1.22–25 “And the levites shall recite the iniquities of the children of Israel…[And al]l those who enter the covenant shall confess after them and they shall say: 'We have acted sinfully, we have [trans]gressed…'” (DSSSE 1:70–71).

14f Relationship between Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum Since the early Middle Ages, the Catholic tradition has emphasized the close relationship between the sacraments of penance, the anointing of the sick, and the viaticum (communion given to one about to die).

• →Rom. Rit. An.: Roman Catholic liturgy has a "Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum" in which a dying person receives the three sacraments in close succession (ICEL 1983, 202–219).

16b healed Physically and Innerly The Greek is iaomai.

• The primary denotation is physical healing: e.g., Lk 7:7; Acts 9:34; cf. →Plato Charm. 156b, which refers to curing (iasthai) the eyes (Lamb 1927, 18–19).
• It can also be applied to the healing / forgiveness of sins: G-Is 53:5 "by his wounds we are healed."

13–18 Isotopy of Prayer Every verse in this passage refers to prayer; however, the words used are not simple synonyms.

• The noun euchê ("prayer," v. 15a) and the corresponding verb euchomai ("to pray," v. 16b) are generic terms.
• The verb expressing the prayer of petition is proseuchomai (v. 13a, 14b, 17b, 18a) or proseuchê (v. 17b).
• More concretely, the noun deêsis (v. 16c) stands for a supplication or a particular request.
• As for psallô ("to chant," v. 13b), it applies to prayer in the form of a hymn (Vocabulary Jas 5:13b), in particular in the liturgical context.

13–20 Connection between Healing and Conversion Several biblical passages evince the connection between healing (Jas 5:14–16) and conversion from sin (Jas 5:19–20):

• G-Dt 30:2–3 "And return (epistrephô) to the Lord your God and obey his voice in all that I command you today…and the Lord will heal (iaomai) your sins."
• 2Chr 7:14 "if then my people…turn (M: šwb; G: apostrephô) from their evil ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal (G: iaomai; M = rp’) their land."
• Is 6:10 "they turn (M: šwb; G: epistrephô) and be healed (M: rp’; G: iaomai)."
• Jer 3:22 "Return (M: šwb; G: epistrephô), rebellious children! I will heal (M: rp’; G: iaomai) your rebellions."
• Hos 6:1 "Come, let us return (M: šwb; G: epistrephô) to the Lord, For it is he who has torn, but he will heal (M: rp’; G: iaomai) us" (NAB).
• See also Prv 3:7; Ez 34:4,16.

14f Gifts of Healing in Paul

• In 1Cor 12:9,30, Paul speaks of community members who have been given the "gifts of healing" (charismata iamatôn).
• In this passage, the authority to heal is restricted to the presbyters (v. 14b).

15a prayer of faith will save Echo of the Jesus Tradition James echoes Jesus' teaching on prayer (e.g., Mt 21:21; Mk 11:24). The phrase may specifically echo Jesus' own characteristic teaching: "your faith has saved you" (e.g., Mk 5:34; Lk 7:50; 17:19). Compare also stories in the Jesus' tradition in which the faith of an intercessor leads to healing: Mk 2:1–12 (faith of the paralyzed man's friends); Mt 8:5–13 || Lk 7:1–10 (centurion's faith leads to healing of his son or servant); Mt 15:21–28 || Mk 7:24–30 (the Canaanite woman's faith leads to her daughter's healing).

18b the earth grew its fruit Allusion to the Creation Story? Some scholars see in James' phrase (hê gê eblastêsen ton karpon autês) an allusion to G-Gn 1:11: "let the earth put forth (blastêsatô hê gê) herbaceous vegetation…and a fruit-bearing tree producing fruit (xulon karpimon poioun karpon)."

15a will save Physically or Eschatologically?

• The Greek sôᵢzô, as also the Latin salvo, are ambiguous—they may refer to either physical healing or eschatological salvation.
• S opts for a translation (the ap‘el of ḥlm) that emphasizes physical healing or wholeness.

14f anointing him with oil Depictions of Anointing The sacrament of the anointing of the sick ("extreme unction"), which the Catholic Church considers to be defined in Jas 5:14–15, has been depicted artistically in many ways:

Paintings

• Rogier van der Weyden, "Extreme Unction," part of a The Seven Sacraments altarpiece (1445–1550). Koninklijk Museum, Antwerp. Accessed here→
• Hieronymus Bosch (?), "Four Last Things," part of The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things (ca. 1500). Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Accessed here→
• Dutch School, "Last rites" (ca. 1600). Accessed here→

• Nicolas Poussin, "L'extrême-onction," part of Les Sept Sacrements (ca. 1636–1640). Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge. Set in ancient times, a priest anoints the dying man's eyes. Accessed here→. 
• Nicolas Poussin, "L'extrême-onction," part of another Les Sept Sacrements (ca. 1644–1648). Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh. Set in ancient times, Poussin portrays a dying Christian soldier; a priest anoints his hands. Accessed here→. 
• Giuseppe Crespi, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1712). Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden. Accessed here→.

Etchings

• Pietro Longhi, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1755). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Accessed here→.

Tapestries

• South Netherlandish, "Extreme Unction," part of The Seven Sacraments (ca. 1435–1450). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed here→.

16a Confess : Byz TR | Nes: Confess, then Nes (א B A C) retains oun ("then") after “Confess."

16a Confess, then Association of Confession with Healing and Forgiveness By using the particle oun to link mutual confession and prayer (v. 16) with the reference to healing and forgiveness in v. 15, James may imply that confession and harmony in the community are required before God will answer the prayer of healing. This connection here is similar to that made in the petition of the Lord's prayer, "Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Mt 6:12).

18a heaven gave rain Semiticism James' expression ho ouranos hueton edôken reflects the Hebrew phrase nātan gešem (Lv 26:4) or nātan māṭār (Dt 11:14). See also →Allison 2013, 779.

15a prayer of faith Echo James' phrase euchê tês pisteôs echoes his earlier teaching on prayer in Jas 1:6, "Let him ask in faith" (en pistei).

16a Confess the failings to one another Confession of Sin in Scripture Confession of sin took place in a variety of contexts.

Old Testament

• Sin were confessed when offering a sacrifice (Lv 5:1–6).
• A sin committed against another had to be confessed: Nm 5:6–7 "If a man or a woman commits any offense against another person…that person shall confess (M: hitpa‘al of ydh; G: exagoreuô) the wrong that has been done..."
• The high priest confesses the sins of the people on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:21: the high priest Aaron).
• Confession to the Lord is necessary for healing: Ps 32:3–5 (G-Ps 31:3–5) “Because I kept silent, my bones wasted away…Then I declared (M: hip‘il of ydh; G: gnôrizô) my sin to you…and you took away the guilt of my sin."

New Testament

• The Gospel traditions record the tradition of public confession of sins as part of John's baptism (Mt 3:6).
• 1Jn 1:9 links confession and forgiveness of sin without specifying a context: "If we confess (homolegeô) our sins (hamartias) he is faithful and just, and will forgive our sins."

17f Narrative and Further Interpretive Traditions of 1 Kings

Elijah's prayer

The basic narrative in 1 Kings does not explicitly mention Elijah's prayer:

• 1Kgs 17:1: Elijah announces to King Ahab that there would be no rain, except at his word.
• 1Kgs 18:41–45: Elijah announces a coming rain to Ahab.

Some narrative details, however, may allude to prayer:

• In 1Kgs 18:42, Elijah crouches with his face between his knees after announcing the coming of rain to Ahab.
• In 1Kgs 17:1, Elijah mentions "the Lord, before whom I stand" (RSV), a posture traditionally associated with prayer.

The biblical narrative does emphasize the efficacy of Elijah's prayer in other episodes:

• prayer to raise the widow's son from the dead (1Kgs 17:20–22);
• prayer to send fire from heaven for his sacrifice (1Kgs 18:21–39);
• prayer to send fire from heaven to destroy the king's messengers (2Kgs 1:9–12).

The summary in Sir 48:3 is more explicit about God's role: "By God's word he shut up the heavens" (Peritestamental Literature Jas 5:17b).

The Period of the Drought

The OT narrative refers to three years of drought (1Kgs 18:1); James' more precise references to three years and six months is parallelled in Lk 4:25. It is possible that the three and a half years has a deeper symbolic reference: in apocalyptic texts, it refers to the time of eschatological tribulation; e.g.:

• Dn 7:25; 12:7 "a time, two times, and half a time";
• Rv 11:2–3,6, which refers to two witnesses who prophesy during the 42 months (= three and a half years) of tribulation; the witnesses have the power to stop rain.

15c if he should have committed any sins Association of Sin, Sickness, Healing, and Forgiveness of Sins

• →CCC 1502 on the view of illness in the OT: “The man of the Old Testament lives his sickness in the presence of God. It is before God that he laments his illness, and it is of God, Master of life and death, that he implores healing (cf. Ps 6:2[3]; Ps 38; Is 38). Illness becomes a way to conversion (cf. Ps 38:4[5]; Ps 39:8[9]; Ps 39:11[12]); God’s forgiveness initiates the healing (cf. Ps 32:5; 107:17–20). It is the experience of Israel that illness is mysteriously linked to sin and evil, and that faithfulness to God according to his law restores life: ‘For I am the Lord, your healer’ (Ex 15:26). The prophet intuits that suffering can also have a redemptive meaning for the sins of others (cf. Is 53:11). Finally Isaiah announces that God will usher in a time for Zion when he will pardon every offence and heal every illness (Is 33:24).”
• →CCC 1505 comments on the links between Jesus' mission as a healer and his redemptive sacrifice on the cross: “Moved by so much suffering Christ not only allows himself to be touched by the sick, but he makes their miseries his own: ‘He took our infirmities and bore our diseases’ (cf. Mt 8:17; Is 53:4). But he did not heal all the sick. His healings were signs of the coming of the Kingdom of God. They announced a more radical healing: the victory over sin and death through his Passover. On the cross Christ took upon himself the whole weight of evil and took away the ‘sin of the world’ (Jn 1:29; cf. Is 53:4–6), of which illness is only a consequence. By his passion and death on the cross Christ has given a new meaning to suffering: it can henceforth configure us to him and unite us with his redemptive Passion."

16c Greatly prevails the prayer of a righteous [man] Asking for the Intercession of the Righteous

• →P. Neph. 1.12–16: A 4^th-century Alexandrian couple may allude to this text when asking monks to pray for their health (holoklêria). "For we believe that the Lord will hear you since you are righteous (dikaioi)."

15f Association of Sin and Illness

• →T. Reub. 1.7: "[God] struck me with a severe wound (plêgê megalê) in my loins for seven months [as punishment for Reuben's sexual sins]" (OTP 1:782; de Jonge 1978, 2).
• →T. Sim. 2.12–13 "for seven days my right hand became partly withered [as the Lord's punishment of Simeon for his desire to kill Joseph out of jealousy]" (OTP 1:785; de Jonge 1978, 16).
• →T. Zeb. 5.3 "For the sons of my brothers were sickly (astheneô) and died on account of Joseph (dia Iôsêph), because they did not act in mercy out of their inner compassion" (OTP 1:806; de Jonge 1978, 96).
• →T. Gad 5.9–11 "For God brought on me a disease (nosos) of the liver…For by whatever human capacity anyone transgresses, by that he is also chastised. Since my anger was merciless in opposition to Joseph, through this anger of mine I suffered mercilessly, and was brought under judgment for eleven months" (OTP 1:815; de Jonge 1978, 130–131).

16c the prayer of a righteous [man] The Effective Prayers of Jacob for Healing The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs portray the prayers of Jacob as effective in saving his sons from deadly illnesses sent by God as punishment for their sins:

• →T. Reub. 1.7 "if my father, Jacob, had not prayed to the Lord on my behalf (peri emou), the Lord would have destroyed me" (OTP 1:782; de Jonge 1978, 2); similarly →T. Gad 5.9.

17b with prayer he prayed : Byz V TR Nes | S: he prayed The Greek witnesses and V apparently attempt to imitate the Semitic absolute infinite by combining a verb and substantive; S chooses a simple perfect: "he prayed." See also Grammar Jas 5:17b.

15f Association between Forgiveness of Sin and Physical Healing

• →b. Ned. 41a "A sick person does not recover from his ailment before all of his sins are forgiven, 'Who forgives all your sins, who heals all your diseases' (Ps 103:3)" (Neusner 2005). Cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:15f.

17f Prayers for Rain in the Rabbinic Tradition

The Righteous Pray for Rain

The rabbinic tradition knows of righteous men who have the power to pray effectively for rain. For example:

• Honi the Circle-Drawer: →m. Ta‘an. 3.8; (cf. →b. Ta‘an. 23a; →Josephus A.J. 14.22). →b. Ta‘an. 23a compares Honi with Elijah.
• Faithful men: →b. Ta‘an. 8a "Rain falls only on account of people of integrity (bšbyl b‘ly ’mnh)" (Neusner 2005); cf. →b. Ta‘an. 23b.
• Hanina ben Dosa: →b. Ta‘an. 24b; →b. Yoma 53b.

Relevant Traditions Regarding Elijah

• →b. Sanh. 113a: Elijah locked up the rain.

16 Interpretations and Applications

• →Calvin Comm. Jac. ad loc. links the two admonitions of this verse: when one Christian confesses his faults to a fellow Christian, this knowledge helps the fellow Christian to pray a more specific and effective prayer of intercession for the one confessing (Owen 1855, 358; Reuss and Erichson 1896, 432).
• →A.A. 1984: Alcoholics' Anonymous practice of group members honestly sharing their failings with one another was inspired by Jas 5:16ab, "Therefore, confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be healed" (128).

15c it will be forgiven him Semiticism The phrase aphethêsetai autôᵢ is likely a Semiticism, indicating the divine passive, as in the Hebrew nslḥ lô. See →Allison 2013, 768.

16a sins Differing Terms for "sins" Nes (א B A) have tas hamartias, usually rendered in English as "sins." Some minuscules (e.g., 307, 442), Byz, and thus the TR read ta paraptômata, traditionally rendered in English as "trespasses." See comments of Erasmus at Christian Tradition Jas 5:16a.

15b raise Two Basic Meanings The Greek verb egeirô has two possible meanings:

• It may refer, as in the direct meaning of this passage, to raising up a person physically (e.g., Acts 3:7).
• It is also used for raising from the dead (e.g., Mt 10:8), especially in reference to Jesus’ resurrection (Mt 16:21; Acts 3:15; Rom 6:4). See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:15b.

15ab save + raise up — Syllepsis: Ambiguity between Literal and Metaphorical Meanings James likely has an intentional play on the literal and metaphorical meanings of the two verbs.

• The verb sôᵢzô can be used in freeing or saving someone from a disease; e.g., Jesus' instruction to the woman with the hemorrhage: Mk 5:34 "Your faith has saved (sôᵢzô) you. Go in peace and be cured of your affliction"; see also →Diodorus of Sicily Bibl. hist. 1.82.3 on the physicians' ability to save the patient (sôsai ton kamnonta; Oldfather 1933, 1:280–281). In the NT, it also frequently refers to eternal salvation; e.g., 2Tm 4:18 "The Lord will rescue me from every evil threat and will bring me safe (sôᵢzô) to his heavenly kingdom." Elsewhere in James sôᵢzô always refers to eternal salvation (Jas 1:21; 2:14; 4:12; 5:20).
• The verb egeirô is used with a similar ambiguity between literal and metaphorical; see Vocabulary Jas 5:15b. 

James may thus suggest an intimate connection between healing from a sickness and eternal salvation:

• perhaps the physical saving / raising is a sign or foreshadowing of eternal salvation / raising from the dead,
• or perhaps the physical saving / raising already participates in eternal salvation and raising in a proleptic manner.

See further Christian Tradition Jas 5:15a; Christian Tradition Jas 5:15b.

15f

Association of Sin and Illness

Different Scriptures witness to the various ways in which sin and illness are associated. 

• Illness, suffering, and death can be seen as the result of human sin (Gn 3:14–19; Rom 5:12).
• Disease is understood as a punishment for breaking God’s covenant Law in many OT books: Ex 15:26; Dt 7:15; 28:15–22. A connection between sin and disease is also evident in some NT passages: 1Cor 11:29–30; Jn 9:2 "Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?" See also Ps 38:3 (G-37:4), "There is no wholesomeness in my flesh because of your anger; there is no health in my bones because of my sin." Cf. Peritestamental Literature Jas 5:15f.
• The causal connection between sin and illness is questioned in the Book of Job (Jb 4:7–9; 7:20; 9:22–23). Jesus also questions the connection: Jn 9:3 "Neither he nor his parents sinned; it is so that the works of God might be made visible through him," although Jesus assumes there is still some connection between the two (see Mk 2:1–12).
• Illness is at times associated with demonic activity; see Mk 9:17: a boy possessed by a mute spirit; Lk 13:11: a woman "crippled by a spirit."
• Other passages also do not relate illness to sin, but instead promise salvation for the sick, e.g., Lazarus, a poor man covered with sores, who finds his eternal reward (Lk 16:19–31). See Theology Jas 5:15c.

James says significantly in Jas 5:15, "if he should have committed any sins," those sins will be forgiven to the sick person. Thus James sees no necessary, causal connection between sin and sickness.

Association of Forgiveness of Sin and Healing

Old Testament View

In its holistic view of the human being, several OT passages presuppose a close connection between forgiveness of sin and healing, just as some connection between sin and illness was assumed.

• Ps 103:2–3 (G-Ps 102:2–3) “Bless the Lord, my soul; and do not forget all his gifts. Who pardons all your sins, and heals (M: rp’; G: ioamai) all your ills." 
• Ps 107:17–20 (G-Ps 106:17–20) "Some fell sick from their wicked ways, afflicted because of their sins. They loathed all manner of food; they were at the gates of death. In their distress they cried to the Lord, who saved (M: yš‘; G: sôᵢzô) them in their peril, sent forth his word to heal them, and snatched them from the grave."
• In the eschatological age, both illness and sin will be removed: Is 33:24 "No one who dwells there will say, 'I am sick'; the people who live there will be forgiven their guilt." See further Theology Jas 5:14f.

Jesus' Holistic View of Healing

Jesus presumes the connection between sin and disability in his healing of the paralytic (Mt 9:1–8). In two further passages, however, Jesus denies a causal relation: those who suffer oppression or accident are no worse sinners than those who do not (Lk 13:1–5), and disability can be an opportunity to reveal God's works (Jn 9:3).

Jesus’ own healing is holistic. His healing of the paralytic is associated with forgiveness of sin in Mt 9:1–8 (cf. Mk 2:17 “It is not the healthy who need the doctor, but the sick. I came to call not the upright, but sinners).” His healings are regularly associated with a call for faith (cf. Mk 2:5; 5:34,36; 9:23), and are understood as signs that the kingdom of God has come near (cf. Mt 11:5). See also Theology Jas 5:15b and →Thomas 1993; →Albl 2002.

1:1–5:20 James Depictions of James

Western Catholic Tradition

Depictions of James, the author of the epistle, in paintings, statues, manuscript illustrations, engravings, woodcuts, and embroidery on liturgical vestments are particularly prominent in the Middle Ages. A common consensus of the artists is that the author of the epistle is James the Just, leader of the Jerusalem church; he is typically further identified with James, son of Alphaeus, one of Jesus' Twelve (Mk 3:18), and "James the Less" (Mk 15:40; →Jameses near Jesus). The iconography of James draws particularly on accounts of James recorded in →Eusebius of Caesarea Hist. eccl. 2.23 and →Jerome Vir. ill. 2, who in turn draw on accounts from Clement of Alexandria and Hegesippus (→Introduction). Several prominent features of these portrayals may be noted:

• Following the tradition that he was the first bishop of Jerusalem, James is often portrayed anachronistically in bishop's vestments.
• James is often portrayed holding a fuller's club, alluding to the tradition that James was beaten to death with a such a club. Variations show him holding different types of clubs. Another related tradition shows James holding a bow such as one used by hat-makers of the Middle Ages.
• James bears a striking physical resemblance to his brother Jesus.
• One artistic tradition, based on accounts found in the preface to the →Glossa ord. and →de Voragine Leg. aur., portrays the infant James as part of a large extended family. According to this legend, Anne, mother of the Virgin Mary, had three children named Mary with three different husbands. James and his brothers Joses (Joseph), Simon, and Jude (cf. Mk 6:3) are the sons of Mary (daughter of Anne and Cleophas; cf. Jn 19:25) and Alphaeus (cf. Mk 3:18). James and his brothers are thus cousins of Jesus (son of Mary, daughter of Anne and Joachim) and of John the Evangelist and James the Greater (sons of Mary, daughter of Anne and Salomas).

The following images are noteworthy:

• A painting of James in the Armenian St. James Cathedral, Jerusalem: James is dressed in episcopal robes, wears a miter, and holds a crozier (→Gowler 2014, 54).
• Blessed James Apostle. In the Stavelot Bible (1093–1097, British Museum Add. MS. 28106–28107) illuminations of the apostle James are at the introduction to the Catholic epistles (f. 197 r→) and at the beginning of his epistle (f. 197 v→). The apostle stands, holding a book.
• Apostle James the Less, statue, south portal of Chartres Cathedral, early 13^th century.

James holds a club.

• Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper (1495–1498), Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. 

James, who resembles his brother Jesus, is second from his left. This full-scale copy was the main source for the—unfortunate—twenty-year restoration of the original (1978–1998). It includes several lost details such as Christ's feet, the transparent glass decanters on the table, and the floral motifs of the tapestries that decorate the room's interior. It was first mentioned in 1626 by the author Bartolomeo Sanese as hanging in the Certosa di Pavia, a monastery near Pavia, Italy, but it is unlikely that it was intended for this location. At some point, the upper third of the picture was cut off, and the width was reduced. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with Leonardo when he was in Milan. A very fine, full-size copy of this painting, before it was cut down, is installed at Tongerlo Abbey in Westerlo, near Antwerp, Belgium. 

• Lucas Cranach the Elder, The Holy Kinship (1509), a triptych in the Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt, Germany. The infant Jesus, his mother Mary, and Mary's mother Anne are portrayed in the center. To the right is Anne's other daughter Mary, her husband Zebedee, and sons John the Evangelist and James the Greater. To the left is another of Anne's daughters named Mary with her husband Alphaeus; their children James, Joses (Joseph), Simon, and Jude are in the left and center panels.

The side and central panels describe a great hall with blue grey walls and three-colored tiles. In the side panels are depicted the half-sisters of the Virgin Mary —called after their fathers Mary Cleophas (left) and Mary Salome (right)—together with their husbands.

Left panel: Mary Cleophas and Alphaeus (with the features of Frederick the Wise) with their two sons, the Apostles James the Less (at her breast) and Joseph Justus, called Barnabas, depicted with a book as annunciator of the Gospel according to Matthew.

Central panel: Joseph, who seems to seems to sleep, the Virgin dressed in blue with yellow lining, Anna and the Christ Child on her knee, who is stretching out his hand towards an apple given to him by the Virgin Mary. Anna's three husbands following →de Voragine Leg. aur. are shown in the background in the matroneum: on the left Joachim, who is attracted by the holy women in front of him and whose relation is also shown by the corresponding blue and yellow color of his dress, Cleophas (with the physiognomy and chain of Emperor Maximilian I), and Salomas (with the physiognomy of Sixtus Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, secretary of Frederick III, Maximilian I, and Charles V), who are talking to each other. There is an architectural structure by a great stone bench in the foreground of the central panel with two marble columns on the sides, over which is stretched a cloth of gold. On the right column is a tablet with date and signature: LVCAS CHRONVS FACIEBAT ANNO MDIX (1509). The parapet of the matroneum is decorated by a sculptured frieze with dancing putti holding six escutcheons with the six fields of the electorate of Saxony. In the hall are shown the 17 members of the The Holy Kinship. In the central panel are shown two more children of Mary Cleophas and Alpheus: the Apostles Simon, patron saint of weavers, dyers, tanners, and saddlers, and Jude, who went on mission. They suffered their martyrdom together and therefore are regularly depicted together.

Right panel: Mary Salome and Zebedee (with the features of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, and his brother Herzog Johann der Beständige). Mary Salome, dressed in gold with dark red lining, is combing her son James the Greater, while John the Evangelist is hiding in her dress.

• Paolo Veronese (Caliari), James as Bishop (ca. 1578), Burghley House Collection, Lincolnshire, UK. James with crozier and miter, holding a book.

• El Greco, Saint James the Less (1610–1614), Museo del Greco, Toledo, Spain. 

James is shown holding a Bible, symbolizing his status as a scriptural writer, in one hand. James is depicted in the Mannerist style with elongated form and without any of the traditional iconographic symbols

• Niccolò Bambini, The Communion of the Apostle James the Less→ (1722–1723).

The risen Jesus appears to James and breaks bread with him (based on an account recorded in →Jerome Vir. ill. 2, said to be drawn from the Gospel according to the Hebrews).

• Angelo de Rossi, James the Less→ (1705–1711), Saint John Lateran, Rome.

James holds a book and club.

• James Tissot, Saint James the Less→ (1886–1894), Brooklyn Museum, New York.

James, resembling Jesus, prays on his knees with outstretched arms. It perhaps reflects Hegesippus' statement that James spent so much time in prayer that his knees were as hard as a camel's.

Eastern Orthodox Traditions

• Martyrdom of James the Just, illustration from the Menologion of Basil II (late 10^th/early 11^th c., PG 117:9–614), Vatican Library, Vat. gr. 1613: image 131→.
• James the Just, Russian icon, 16^th c., Novgorod. James is depicted in episcopal robes and holds a book.

The inscription bearing the name of the saint has disappeared, but the iconography—facial features and beard shape—suggest that the icon is of James. Byzantine art places him among the founding fathers of the Church. As the creator of the first liturgy containing memorial services and the author of the message that speaks of the healing power of prayer (Jas 5:14–16), he was worshipped in ancient times as a healer. In Novgorod, James is prayed for the end of the epidemics. In sacred iconography, the representations of James alone are very rare. On icons he is represented with other saints: James the brother of the Lord, Nicholas the Thaumaturgist, and Ignatius the God-Bearer (end of the 15^th c.); James the brother of the Lord, Cosmas, and Damian (2^nd quarter of the 16^th c.).

For discussion of visual depictions, see →Bedford 1911; →Gowler 2014, 53–62.

14c,15b the Lord Ambiguous Reference of the Divine Name James has two references to "the Lord" in this section on healing:

• v. 14c "anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord";
• v. 15b "and the Lord will raise him up."

In James, the title "Lord" refers to both God and Jesus: →Kurios in James. Given the close association of Jesus with the power of healing in Christian belief (including calling on the name of Jesus in healing; cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:14c), a reference to Jesus is likely here. It is also possible that James is intentionally ambiguous in order to suggest that Jesus and God share the divine name ("Lord"), and thus the divine power of healing.

17b with prayer he prayed Semitism The Greek proseuchêᵢ prosêuchato (lit.: "in his prayer he prayed"), pairing the dative of a verbal noun with its cognitive verb, imitates the Semitic infinitive absolute construction. This construction serves to strengthen the intensity of the action, thus the translation "fervently." This is one indication of the strong Semitic background of the letter. See also →Allison 2013, 776.

13–18 Exhortations on Prayer, Proper Speech, and Physical and Spiritual Healing The passage focuses on prayer (Literary Devices Jas 5:13–18). After warning the reader that he must ask God in faith, not doubting (Jas 1:5–8), and that he must not ask wrongly (Jas 4:2–3), James here gives examples of proper, effective prayer.

The passage also relates to James' concern with proper speech: after giving many admonitions against improper speech (e.g., Jas 5:9,12), James here gives example of the proper use of speech in praying and singing. See also →Speech in James.

The passage presents a holistic view of illness and healing: here, these two elements are closely associated: physical illness and “spiritual illness” (sin) on the one hand, and physical healing and forgiveness of sin on the other, are closely linked. There is also a strong link between understanding the anointing ritual as providing healing (both spiritual and physical) in this life, and understanding the anointing and prayer as preparation for ultimate healing in the resurrection and eternal life. This holistic emphasis reflects the theme of wholeness and integrity found throughout the letter. See further →Perfection / Wholeness in James.

Catholic tradition has drawn out the meaning of Jas 5:14–15 in various ways, primarily through the development of the teaching on the sacrament of the anointing of the sick. The tradition has at various times emphasized the different aspects of James’ integral vision: spiritual healing (Origen, John Chrysostom, Council of Trent), physical healing (an early tradition of anointing by the laity, Vatican II’s emphasis on a broader understanding of healing), and the eschatological dimension (the traditional emphasis on “extreme unction” as preparation for eternal life). See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:14f; Theology Jas 5:14f.

Following this section, the letter’s final section is James’ exhortation to community members to turn back a straying fellow-believer (Jas 5:19–20). James thus reiterates his characteristic concern for harmony within the community. The history of interpretation generally interpreted this ambiguous passage to mean that a person who converted another from sin would in turn receive pardon of his own sins; this interpretation then took its place in a traditional list of ways in which one could seek pardon for one’s sins. See also Christian Tradition Jas 5:20c.

15a wearied Range of Meanings The Greek verb kamnô has a broad array of meanings:

• "to be weary"; e.g., →4 Macc. 3.8: David is "very tired" (sphodra kekmêkôs) after a battle with the Philistines (OTP 2:547; Rahlfs and Hanhart 2006, 735);
• "to die"; e.g., Ws 4:16; 15:9.
• a general term for illness; e.g., →Strabo Geogr. 8.6.15: at Epidaurus, the temple of Asclepius, "who is believed to cure diseases (nosous) of every kind and always has his temple full of the sick (kamnontôn)" (Jones 1927, 4:176–177).

16a failings Synonym of Sin The cognate verb para + piptô means "to fall beside," "to miss." The noun paraptôma means "lapse," "misdeed." In the context of classical Greek, the noun can refer to literary faults. The noun appears in parallel to hamartia "sin" in Rom 5:20 and Eph 2:1, where both are described as deadly. 

17a suffering like us A Common Human Nature The Greek is homoiopathês hêmin (V: similis nobis passibilis). The Greek means literally a similarity in emotions (pathê). When the crowd at Lystra refers to Barnabas and Paul as Zeus and Hermes, Paul replies, "We are of the same nature as you" (homoiopatheis…humin; Acts 14:15). 

14c–15a anointing + save — Anointing and Salvation in Second Temple Judaism James' link between the anointing ritual and eschatological salvation (Literary Devices Jas 5:15ab) reflects the Second Temple Jewish connection between anointing with oil and final salvation.

• →Apoc. Mos. 9.3; 13.1–2 (cf. Latin →L.A.E. 36.2 [oil of life = oleum vitae; Meyer 1878, 233]; 40–42; 40.1 [oil of mercy = oleum misericordiae; Meyer 1878, 25]): Adam, ill because of his sins, will receive a healing anointing with oil (Greek: elaion) from a tree in Paradise at the final resurrection (Levison 2023, 157–158; Tromp 2005, 130, 134; cf. other references to an olive tree in Paradise: →2 En. 8.4 [shorter recension]; →Gen. Rab. 33.6 ad Gn 8:11).
• →2 En. 22.8–10; cf. 56.2: Enoch’s anointing with "delightful oil" marks his transition from his earthly existence into becoming “like one of the glorious ones, and there was no observable difference" (OTP 1:138–139; Macaskill 2013, 102–103). See also →3 Bar. 15 (Greek): baskets of oil (elaion) as eschatological reward (OTP 1:677; Picard 1967, 95).
• →Jos. Asen. 8.5 (cf. 15.5): anointing with a “blessed ointment of incorruptibility (chrietai chrismati eulogêmenôᵢ aphtharsias)" (OTP 2:212; Philonenko 1968, 154); cf. →T. Adam 1.7 (OTP 1:993; Robinson 1982, 54–55).

17b with prayer he prayed Relevant Traditions about Elijah

• Some manuscripts of →Vit. proph. 21 state explicitly, "Elijah prayed, and it did not rain for three years, and after three years he prayed again and abundant rain came" (OTP 2:396; Torrey omits this as a later addition; see Torrey 1946, 8–9; see also OTP 2:396 n. g). The summary of Elijah's life emphasizes the efficacy of his prayer (e.g., in raising the widow's daughter).
• →4 Ezra 7.109: Elijah is listed as one of the biblical examples of one known for his prayers of intercession: "Elijah [prayed] for those who received the rain, and for the one who was dead, that he might live" (OTP 1:541; Weber and Gryson 1969, 1949); cf. 1Kgs 17:20–22.

15b will raise him up "Relieve" or "Comfort" Instead of "Raise Up" Much of the Latin tradition (e.g., →Glossa ord., →C; →Suarez Disp. 41 sect. 1.11 [Berton 1861, 22/2:831]) reads alleviabit (instead of adlevabit), which, in addition to "raise up," can also be translated as "relieve" or "comfort."

13–20 Connection between Conversion and Healing As part of the generally assumed connection between illness and sin, conversion and health, many texts parallel James in linking healing (Jas 5:14–16) with references to repentance or conversion from sin (Jas 5:19–20).

• →Test. Dom. 1.24 (prayer over the oil for healing): “send on this oil (mšḥ’), which is the type of your fatness, the delivering [power] of your good compassion, that it may deliver those who labour and heal those who are sick, and sanctify those who return (mtpnyn), when they approach to your faith; for you are mightily and [to be] praised for ever and ever" (Cooper and MacLean 1902, 78; Rahmani 1899, 48)
• →Polycarp Phil. 6.1 identifies caring for the sick (episkeptomenoi pantas astheneis) and "turning back those who have gone astray (epistrephontes ta apopeplanêmena)" as duties of the presbyters (presbuteroi; Ehrman 2003, 1:340–341).

The language of physical healing can be used to describe repentance and conversion:

• →Const. ap. 2.14.11 "Now we ought to assist those who are with us (variant reading: 'those who are sick') and are in danger, and fall, and, as far as lies in our power, to reduce them to sobriety by our exhortations, and so save them from death (hugiazein autous kai ruesthai ek thanatou)" (ANF 7:401; Metzger 1985, 1:176–177).

13–18 Parallel with 1 Clement Several themes and some specific vocabulary occurring in Jas 5 appears in a prayer recorded in →1 Clem. 59.4 (Ehrman 2003, 1:142–143):

• "Save (sôᵢzô) those of us who are in affliction" (cf. Jas 5:15a: sôᵢzô);
• "raise (egeirô) those who have fallen" (cf. Jas 5:15b: egeirô);
• "heal (iaomai) those who are sick (astheneis)" (cf. Jas 5:14a: astheneô; Jas 5:16b: iaomai);
• "set straight (epistrephô) those among your people who are going astray (planaô)" (cf. Jas 5:19: planaô, epistrephô);
• "raise up (anistêmi) the weak (astheneis)" (cf. Jas 5:14a: astheneô; Jas 5:15b: egeirô).

Some scholars posit that 1 Clement is dependent on James, but the relationship may also be seen as a common reliance on early Christian vocabulary and concerns (see Bemmerl 2023, 34–35).

14f Foundational Text for the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick? →Trent Extr. unct. taught that James "recommended to the faithful and promulgated (fidelibus commendatum ac promulgatum)" the sacrament of "extreme unction" in Jas 5:14–15 (→DzH 1695; cf. Theology Jas 5:14f). The exact relationship between this passage and the sacrament, however, has been a subject of controversy within the tradition.

Witness of the Carolingian Councils

Several decrees from the Carolingian era seek to regulate the practice of anointing the sick, perhaps as a response to the custom of lay anointing. Reference is made to Jas 5:14–15:

• →Chalon (813 AD) can. 48: "According to the example (secundum…documentum) of the blessed apostle James, with whom the decrees (decreta) of the fathers agree, the sick should be anointed by the priests (presbyteris) with oil which is blessed by the bishops (oleo, quod a episcopis benedicitur). [Quotation of Jas 5:14–15]. Medicine (medicina) of this kind, which heals the weaknesses of body and soul (quae animae corporisque medetur languoribus) is not to be taken lightly" (Werminghoff 1906, 283).
• →Pavia (850 AD) ch. 8 states that Jas 5:14–15 commends (commendat) the sacrament (sacramentum) (Hartmann 1984, 223).

An Early Reference to Anointing as a Sacrament

• →Peter Damian Serm. 69 cites Jas 5:14 when he lists the anointing of the sick (unctio infirmorum) as the third sacrament (sacramentum) (PL 144:899). Peter lists a total of twelve sacraments. The →Glossa ord. ad loc. reproduces Peter's quotation (1603, 6:1302).

Instituted by Christ or the Apostles?

Instituted by the Apostles

• →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.23.3(129).1 "We read that this sacrament of anointing of the sick was instituted by the Apostles" (Hoc sacramentum unctionis infirmorum ab Apostolis institutum legitur) [quotation of Jas 5:14–15 follows] (Silano 2010, 4:136; Brady 1981, 2:391). So too →Hugh of Saint Victor Sacr. 2.15.2; →Bonaventure Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.2). Bonaventure clarifies his view that the apostles did not institute the sacrament on their own, but were led by the Holy Spirit, referring to Jn 16:12–13, "But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth" (Helllmann et al. 2016, 362–365; Collegium S. Bonaventurae 1889, 4:590–592).

Instituted by Christ

• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 29.3 (= →Aquinas Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.2.3): On the question, "Whether this sacrament was instituted by Christ (institutum a Christo)," Thomas responds that there are two opinions. "For some hold that this sacrament and Confirmation were not instituted by Christ Himself, but were left by Him to be instituted by the apostles; for the reason that these two sacraments, on account of the plenitude of grace conferred in them, could not be instituted before the mission of the Holy Ghost in perfect plenitude…others hold that Christ himself instituted all the sacraments, but that He Himself published some, which present greater difficulties to our belief, while he reserved some to be published (promulganda) by the apostles, such as Extreme Unction and Confirmation." Thomas, following his teacher Albert the Great, holds to this latter opinion, explaining, "The Master [Peter Lombard] says it was instituted by the apostles because its institution was made known to us (promulgata) by the teaching of the apostles" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2655).

Orthodox Views

• →Jeremias II Rep. Aug. Conf. 7 "The anointing of oil, perhaps, is spoken of by some other apostles, but it is clearly handed down (prodêlôs…paradedotai) by St. James the apostle in his catholic epistle where he says: [quotation of Jas 5:13–15 follows]" (CCFCT 1:415; Karmires 1968, 1:460). Jeremias II was patriarch of Constantinople.
• →Critopoulos Conf. 13.1–2 (Peri euchelaiou "On Holy Unction"): Critopoulos, later Patriarch of Alexandria, teaches that this sacramental rite (teletê mustikê) takes its origin from Jesus' commandment (Mk 6:13). "And this rite was entrusted (epetrapê) by the apostles to the whole church," quoting Jas 5:14–15. →Conf. 13.3 cites Jas 5:15c in support of his view that sickness is often caused by sin (CCFCT 1:528; Karmires 1968, 2:543–544).
• →Mogila Orth. Conf. 117: The seventh mystery of the church is the holy oil. "This was instituted (diatetagmenon) by Christ himself [referencing Mk 6:13]…The same was afterwards received by the universal church (holê hê Ekklêsia), as a solemn custom, as appears from the Epistle of James" (referencing Jas 5:14–15; CCFCT 1:609; Karmires 1968, 2:643).

• →Dositheus Conf. 15 "the holy oil or sacrament of unction is spoken of in Mark, and is expressly witnessed to by the Lord's brother" (CCFCT 1:625; Karmires 1968, 2:758).

Catholic Denials that James Refers to the Sacrament

• →Cajetan Ep. Pauli al. ap. ad loc. "Neither from the words nor from the effect (nec ex verbis, nec ex effectu) do these words speak of the sacramental anointing (sacramentali unctione) of Extreme Unction: but rather of the anointing (unctione) which the Lord Jesus instituted (instituit) in the Gospel to be used by the disciples for the sick. For the text does not speak of one who is sick unto death (infirmatur quis ad mortem), but one who is sick absolutely, and says that the effect is the alleviation of the sick person, and speaks of the remission of sins only conditionally (conditionaliter), while Extreme Unction is given only at the moment of death (articulum mortis) and tends directly (directe tendit) (as its form implies) to the remission of sins. Besides this, James orders that many presbyters be called to pray and then to anoint one sick person, which is foreign (alienum) to the rite of Extreme Unction" (1639, 5:370).

Reformation Denials That James Refers to a Sacrament

• →Luther Capt. Bab.: After noting that the apostolic authorship of James is disputed, Luther writes, "But even if the apostle James did write it, I still would say, that no apostle has the right on his own authority to institute a sacrament (sua autoritate sacramentum instituere), that is, to give a divine promise (divina promissio) with a sign (signum) attached. For this belongs to Christ alone" (LW 36:118; WA 6:568).
• →Calvin Inst. rel. 4.19.18, while denying that this passage establishes the sacrament of extreme unction, argues that even if James referred to a sacramental rite in apostolic times, that rite would no longer apply after the time of the apostles. A sacrament must be "a ceremony appointed by God (caeremonia a Deo instituta), and have a promise from God" that is clearly applied to later generations. Thus extreme unction is not a sacrament (4.19.20; Beveridge 1994, 2:636; Baum et al. 1864, 1080).
• →Melanchthon Apol. Conf. Aug. 13.3 defines a sacrament as "rites which have the command of God (ritus, qui habent mandatum Dei) and to which the promise of grace (promissio gratiae) has been added." →Apol. Conf. Aug. 13.6 "Confirmation and Extreme Unction are rites received from the Fathers which not even the Church requires as necessary to salvation, because they do not have God's command" (Bente and Dau 1921, 308–311).

Catholic Responses

• →Eck Ench. 12 "It does not seem unsuitable (non videtur absonum) for an apostle, with the authority of Christ (authoritate Christi) and the command of the Holy Spirit, to institute a sacrament. Yet even if Christ instituted it, still James published it (At si etiam Christus illud instituit, tamen Iacobus promulgavit)" (Fraenkel 1979, 144).
• →Trent Extr. unct. ch. 3 "On no account, then, should any attention be paid to those who, contradicting the plain and lucid doctrine (apertam et dilucidam sententiam) of the apostle James, teach that this anointing is a human invention (figmentum humanum) or a rite received from the Fathers that has no mandate from God and no promise of grace (nec mandatum Dei nec promissionem Dei); or to those who assert that this anointing has already ceased, as if it referred only to the gift of healing in the primitive Church (primitiva Ecclesia); or to those who maintain that the rite and usage observed in the holy Roman Church in the administration of this sacrament are contrary to the doctrine of the apostle James (Iacobi Apostoli sententiae repugnare) and, therefore, must be changed" (→DzH 1699).
• →Trent Extr. unct. can. 1 "If anyone says that extreme unction is not truly and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ our Lord (sacramentum a Christo Domino nostro institutum) and promulgated (promulgatum) by the blessed apostle James but only a rite received from the Fathers or a human invention, let him be anathema" (→DzH 1716). Cf. cans. 2–3 (→DzH 1717–1718).

15 Effect of the Anointing: Physical and Spiritual Healing Two major interpretations of the effect of the anointing ritual in Jas 5:14–15 are evident in the tradition:

• a holistic view, emphasizing both spiritual and physical healing;
• an emphasis on spiritual healing (forgiveness of sin).

Reference to Both Spiritual and Physical Healing

Caesarius of Arles

• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 13.3 "he will merit to receive both bodily health (corporis sanitatem) and the remission of his sins (peccatorum indulgentiam)" (Mueller 1956, 1:77; Morin 1953, 1:66).
• Compare the similar discussion: →Serm. 184.5 "to receive, not only bodily health, but also the forgiveness of sins (remissionem peccatorum)" (Mueller 1973, 3:482; Morin 1953, 2:751). 
• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 19.5 "If he does this, he will receive not only bodily health (sanitatem corporis), but also the forgiveness of his sins (indulgentiam peccatorum)." Qualifications, however, are added: "Bodily sickness is related to health of heart (sanitatem cordis), and God scourges (flagellat) in this world those whom he loves. Even if health returns rather slowly (tardius) to the infirm, let us not murmur against God, but give thanks to Him. He deigns so to chastise (castigare) us by sickness in this world, in order that He may give us eternal rewards (praemia aeterna) in the future life. Many are sick without harm to themselves, for, while they are well in body (sani sunt corpore), they do not cease to think about robberies and riotous living, but as often as we are ill we do penance (paenitentiam) more, give alms (elimosinas), and attain to eternal rewards. Therefore, whether health comes to the sick quickly or slowly (aut cito aut tarde), let us always be grateful, because He knows what is necessary for us—when it is better for us to be sick and when healthy (quando aegrotare aut sanos esse conveniat)" (Mueller 1956, 1:101–102; Morin 1953, 1:90–91).

All three of the above passages are in the context of Caesarius' admonishing of people to attend church regularly; he closely links anointing with the reception of the Body and Blood of Christ.

More Authors

• →Ouen Vita Elig. 2.16 “And he will not only receive health for the body but for the soul (non solum corporis, sed etiam animae sanitatem) and what the Lord promised in the Gospel will be fulfilled saying: ‘For whatever you ask in prayer, you will receive if you have faith’ (Mt 21:22)" (McNamara 2000, 158; Krusch 1902, 707).
• →Bede Ep. cath. ad loc. "the custom of the Church (ecclesiae consuetudo) holds that those who are sick be anointed with consecrated oil by the presbyters (infirmi oleo consecrato ungantur a presbiteris), with the prayer that goes with this, and they may be cured (sanentur)." In his discussion, Bede also notes the connection between physical illness and sin, citing 1Cor 11:30 (Hurst 1985, 61–62; Hurst 1983, 221).
• →Glossa ord. ad loc.: The interlinear gloss to "will raise him up" (alleviabit; Comparison of Versions Jas 5:15b) is "from the sickness of the body (ab infirmitate corporis)" (1603, 6:1303). →Glossa ord. adds marginal glosses, including →Origen Hom. Lev. 2.4.5 and →John Chrysostom Sac. 3.6, which focus on forgiveness of sin.

Spiritual Healing / Forgiveness of Sins Is Primary

• In the earliest known quotation of our passage, →Origen Hom. Lev. 2.4.5 comments only on spiritual healing (albeit using a medical allusion), referring to the passage as an example of forgiveness of sin: “And there is still a seventh remission of sins through penance (per poenitentiam remissio peccatorum)…when the sinner washes 'his couch in tears' (Ps 6:6 [G-6:7])…when he is not ashamed to make known his sin to the priest of the Lord (sacerdoti Domini indicare peccatum) and to seek a cure (et quaerere medicinam)…What the Apostle James said is fulfilled in this: [quotation of Jas 5:14–15, including the addition 'they will place their hands on him']" (Barkley 1990, 47–48; Borret 1981, 1:110–111).
• →John Chrysostom Sac. 3.6 cites the passage to support the authority of priests to forgive sins after baptism: "They have authority to remit sins (sugchôrein echousin exousian hamartêmata), not only when they make us regenerate (hotan hêmas anagennôsi), but afterwards too" (Neville 1964, 74; Malingrey 1980, 154).
• →Cassian Coll. 20.8.4 cites this passage as a witness to the belief in the pardoning of sins through the intercession of the saints (intercessione sanctorum; Ramsey 1997, 699; Petschenig 1886, 562).
• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 30.1 (on Extreme Unction): "Each sacrament was instituted for the purpose of one principal effect (principaliter ad unum effectum). And since a sacrament causes what it signifies, the principal effect of a sacrament must be gathered from its signification (significatione). Now this sacrament is conferred by way of a kind of medicament (secundum modum cuiusdam medicationis), even as Baptism is conferred by way of washing, and the purpose of a medicament (medicina) is to expel sickness (ad pellendum infirmitatem). Hence the chief object of the institution of this sacrament is to cure the sickness of sin (principaliter hoc sacramentum est institutum ad sanandum infirmitatem peccati)…so Extreme Unction is a spiritual healing or cure (spiritualis sanatio vel medicatio). Therefore just as Baptism is a spiritual regeneration, and Penance, a spiritual resurrection, so Extreme Unction is a spiritual healing or cure (extrema unctio est quaedum spiritualis sanatio vel medicatio)…Consequently, we must say that the principal effect of this sacrament is the remission of sin (principalis effectus huius sacramenti est remissio peccatorum), as to its remnants, and consequently, even as to its guilt, if it find it." Jas 5:15c is cited as a proof of the argument: "If he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2659–2660).
• →Bonaventure Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.1 "this sacrament is principally for the cure and alleviation of spiritual illness, namely of venial sin (principaliter est ad curationem et alleviationem infirmitatis spiritualis, scilicet peccati venialis) and per accidens for the cure of bodily illness, by strengthening the soul which directs the body" (Hellman et al. 2016, 359–360; Collegium S. Bonaventurae 1889, 4:588).

Physical Healing Only Occurs If It Aids the Spiritual Healing

• →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.23.3(129) "We read that this sacrament of anointing of the sick was instituted by the Apostles (Hoc sacramentum unctionis infirmorum ab Apostolis institutum legitur) [quotation of Jas 5:14–15 follows]. In this passage, it is shown that this sacrament was instituted for a double cause (duplici ex causa institutum), namely, for the remission of sins (ad peccatorum remissionem) and for the relief of bodily infirmity (ad corporalis infirmitatis alleviationem). And so it is established that someone who receives this anointing with faith and devotion is relieved in body and soul (et in corpore et in anima alleviari), so long as it is expedient (expedit) that he should be relieved in both. But if perhaps it is not expedient that he should have bodily health (corporis valetudinem), he acquires in this sacrament that health which pertains to the soul (animae sanitatem)" (Silano 2010, 4:136; Brady 1981, 2:391). 
• →Aquinas SCG 4.73.1 "Now, the body is the instrument of the soul (corpus est animae instrumentum), and an instrument is for the use of the principal agent: therefore, the disposition of the instrument necessarily must be such as becomes the principal agent. Hence, the body is disposed in harmony with the soul (corpus disponitur secundum quod congruit animae). Therefore, from the infirmity of the soul which is sin (peccatum) infirmity sometimes flows into the body (derivatur ad corpus), when the divine judgment so disposes. To be sure, this bodily infirmity is at times useful for the soundness of the soul (utilis est ad animae sanitatem): so far as a man bears bodily infirmity humbly and patiently, and so far as it is reckoned as satisfying punishment (poenam satisfactoriam computatur) for him. At times, also, it tends to hinder spiritual health: so far as bodily infirmity hinders the virtues. Therefore it was suitable to employ some spiritual medicine (spiritualis medicina) against sin, in accord with the fact that bodily infirmity flows out of sin (ex peccato derivatur infirmitas corporalis); indeed, this spiritual medicine cures the bodily infirmity at times, namely, when this is helpful to salvation (expedit ad salutem). And for this a sacrament was established—extreme unction, about which James says [quotation of Jas 5:14–15a]" (Pegis et al. 1957, 4:282–283).
• →Palamas Hom. 31.17 writes that anyone who turns to God and his saints is healed physically: "if this would be beneficial for him (ei sumpherei toutôᵢ)" but "always finds healing for his soul and forgiveness of sin (tês de kata psuchên hugeias kai tês tôn hamartêmatôn apheseôs aei epitugchanei)" (Veniamin 2009, 250).

Scholastic Debate on the Type of Sins Forgiven

• In the scholastic tradition, theologians debated on whether the sacrament was oriented towards the forgiveness of venial sins (e.g., →Bonaventure Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.1 [Hellman et al. 2016, 357–361; Collegium S. Bonaventurae 1889, 4:588] or the more general "remnants of sin (reliquias peccati)" (e.g., →Aquinas ST Suppl. 30.1 [English Dominicans 1981, 5:2659–2660]). See →Suarez Disp. 41.1.1–10 (Berton 1861, 22:827–831).

Part of a Traditional List of Ways in Which Sins Are Forgiven

• In →Origen Hom. Lev. 2.4.5, Jas 5:14–15 is cited as the seventh in a list of ways to attain remission of sins. The others are baptism, martyrdom, giving alms, forgiving those who sin against us (referencing Mt 6:14–15), turning a fellow sinner back to the right path (referencing Jas 5:20), loving much (referencing Lk 7:47 and 1Pt 4:8), and "remission of sins through penance (per poenitentiam remissio peccatorum)," citing the penitential Psalms and quoting Jas 5:14–15 (omitting Jas 5:15b; Barkley 1990, 46–47; Borret 1981, 1:110–111).
• →Eck Ench. 8 quotes →Origen Hom. Lev. 2.4.5 (although attributing it to Cyril of Alexandria) as a testimony for the sacrament of penance (Fraenkel 1979, 122).

Origen's list is found in an adapted and expanded form in →Cassian Coll. 20.8. Cassian's list in turn forms the basis for a list in a 7^th-century Irish work used in the Merovingian Empire, The Penitential of Cummean, an influential manual for confessors that details penances for various sins (cf. →Poen. Big. pref.). Another list virtually identical to Cummean's is found in →Ps.-Caesarius of Arles Hom. 13. All these works quote Jas 5:14–15, but cite it as an example of the efficacy of intercessory prayer.

• →Cassian Coll. 20.8.4 "Sometimes pardon of sins is also won through the intercession of the holy ones (impetratur venia delictorum intercessione sanctorum)", followed by quotations of 1Jn 5:16 and Jas 5:14–15 (Ramsey 1997, 699; Petschenig 1886, 562).
• →Poen. Cumm. prol. "The eighth is the intercession of the saints (intercessio sanctorum), as this text states, [quotation of Jas 5:14–15, adding Jas 5:16c: 'Powerful indeed is the effective (V: 'persistent') prayer of a righteous person']" (McNiell and Gamer 1938, 100; Zettinger 1902, 506).
• →Ps.-Caesarius of Arles Hom. 13 "The eighth is the intercession of the saints, as the text states [abbreviated quotation of Jas 5:14, adding Jas 5:16c]" (PL 67:1075).
• A version of the traditional list appears in →CCC 1434: "Alongside the radical purification brought about by Baptism or martyrdom they [i.e., Scripture and the Fathers] cite the following as means of obtaining forgiveness of sins: effort at reconciliation with one's neighbor, tears of repentance, concern for the salvation of one's neighbor, the intercession of the saints, and the practice of charity 'which covers a multitude of sins' (1Pt 4:8; cf. Jas 5:20)."

15a the prayer of faith will save Centrality of the Prayer Many interpretations focus on the efficacy of prayer.

• →Bonaventure Comm. Sent. 4.23.1.4 "in the institution of the sacrament James would seem to locate the greatest power (maximam vim) in the prayer and attribute all of its efficacy (totam efficaciam) to it when he says, 'the prayer of faith will save the sick.' He does not say that anointing will do this" (Hellmann et al. 2016, 371; Collegium S. Bonaventurae 1889, 4:595). 
• →Luther Capt. Bab. "James made careful and diligent provision in this case by attaching the promise of healing and the forgiveness of sins not to the unction, but to the prayer of faith" (LW 36:121; WA 6:570).
• →Zwingli Exp. Jac. ad loc. attributes any regaining of health in this ritual to the prayer of faith, not to the anointing with the oil. Zwingli notes that James here refers to the ancient practice of anointing, practiced also by Christ's disciples, and comments that oil is beneficial for many ailments as a medicine (pharmacum) (1533, 49).

15b the Lord will raise him up Oil and Eschatological Salvation / Resurrection Several early Christian texts connect olive oil with the tree of life in the Garden of Eden, and thus with future eternal life:

• →Gosp. Phil. 73.16–18 “The tree of life, however, is in the middle of the garden (paradeisos). It is an olive tree, and from it comes chrism, and from chrism comes resurrection (anastasis)" (Meyer 2007, 178; Layton 1989, 188).
• →Origen Cels. 6.27: Report of a group whose members profess, “I have been anointed with white ointment (chrismati leukôᵢ) from the tree of life” (Chadwick 1965, 342; Borret 1969, 3:244).
• →Ps.-Clement Recogn. 1.45.5 “Him [i.e., Christ] first God anointed with oil which was taken from the wood of the tree of life (hunc primum pater oleo perunxit, quod ex ligno vitae fuerat sumptum): from that anointing therefore He is called Christ. Thence, moreover, He Himself also, according to the appointment of His Father, anoints with similar oil (simili oleo perunguet) every one of the pious when they come to His kingdom, for their refreshment after their labours, as having got over the difficulties of the way; so that their light may shine, and being filled with the Holy Spirit, they may be endowed with immortality (inmortalitate donentur) (ANF 8:89; Rehm and Strecker 1994, 34).
• →Gosp. Nic. B 19: Adam sends Seth in search of oil from Paradise in order to anoint and heal Adam, but he will not receive it until Christ descends to the underworld after his crucifixion (Ehrman and Pleše 2011, 478–479); cf. →Apoc. Mos. 9.3.

See also Vocabulary Jas 5:15b; Peritestamental Literature Jas 5:14c–15a; Theology Jas 5:15c.

16a Confess the failings to one another Confessing to Priests or Laity? The tradition is divided on whether James refers to confessing sins to priests or to laypeople.

Confession to a Priest

• →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.17.3(94).1 "But that it is necessary to confess to priests (sacerdotibus confiteri oporteat) is proven (comprobatur) not only by the authority of James, 'Confess your sins to each other,' etc., but also by many testimonies of others" (Silano 2010, 4:99; Brady 1981, 2:348). Similarly, →Hugh of Saint Victor Sacr. 2.14.1.
• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 8.1 also understands James' admonition to refer to priests; arguing that James presupposes Jesus' divine institution of penance when he gave priests, in the person of the apostles, the power to forgive sins (referencing Jn 20:23). →ST Suppl. 6.6 adds that the sacrament was promulgated by James (a Iacobo promulgatum), but instituted by God (sed a Deo institutionem habuit). But see →ST Suppl. 8.3 (below).
• Other authors cite Jas 5:16a as a proof-text for the sacrament of penance: →Nicholas of Lyra Post. ad loc. (1603, 6:1303); →Albert the Great Par. an. 40 (Borgnet 1898, 508).

Confession to One Another

• →Augustine of Hippo Tract. ev. Jo. 58.5 takes this as a general admonition that Christians should pray for one another, and forgive one another's sins, following the example of Christ who humbly washed the feet of the disciples (Hill 2020, 3/13:196; Willems 1954, 475); cf. →Augustine of Hippo Ep. 153.10; →Bede Hom. ev. 2.5.150.
• →Bede Ep. cath. ad. loc. "However, in this statement there ought to be made this distinction, that we confess our daily and minor sins (cotidiana leuiaque peccata) to another as peers (alterutrum coaequalibus) and believe that we are saved by their daily prayer; in turn, according to the law, let us make known the uncleanness of more serious leprosy to the priest (sacerdoti) and take care to be purified in the manner and for the length of time his judgment has decreed. (Hurst 1985, 62; Hurst 1983, 222); cf. →Bede Hom. ev. 2.14.57–61.
• →Martin of León Exp. Jac. ad loc., uses Bede's wording, but concludes that daily and minor sins should be confessed to a priest, and graver sins to an abbot or bishop (abbati, vel episcopo) (PL 209:212). 
• →Glossa ord. ad loc.: Bede's teaching is quoted in an interlinear gloss (1603, 6:1303–1304).
• →Peter Lombard Sent. 4.17.4(95).7 also quotes Bede's teaching, specifying that Bede refers to a distinction between venial and mortal sins (venialium et mortalium). "Venial sins may be confessed to an equal, but the graver ones to a priest." Venial sins may be confessed to an equal, "even if there is an abundance of priests." He ends by qualifying, "Yet it is safer and more perfect to reveal both kinds of sins to priests and to seek medicinal counsel from those to whom the power of loosing and binding was granted" (Silano 2010, 4:103; Brady 1981, 2:353); cf. →Sent. 4.16.1(86).3.
• →Aquinas ST Suppl. 8.3: Referring to the authority of Bede and Peter Lombard, Thomas concludes "a man does not need to confess his venial sins to a priest (non oportet quod venialia aliquis sacerdoti confiteatur)," since a person is not separated from God or from the sacraments by venial sins. Confession to a layperson (confessio laico), nevertheless, "is a sacramental (sacramentale), although it is not a perfect sacrament, and since it proceeds from charity, it has a natural aptitude to remit sins (natum est veniale remitti)" (English Dominicans 1981, 5:2584).
• →Duns Scotus Quaest. Sent. ad 4.17.1 denies that Jas 5:16a refers to the sacrament of penance; it rather encourages lay Christians to confess their sins to one another (Wadding 1894, 518–519).
• →Erasmus Annot. Jac. ad loc. reads paraptômata, which, he argues, should be translated as errors (errata) instead of sins (peccata, as in V); so also →Estius Comm. ep. cath. ad loc. (1778, 11:4381). "For he refers to daily offenses (quotidianis offensis) of Christians among themselves, which he wishes to reconcile without delay. Otherwise, if he were referring to confession, which we say is part of the sacrament of penance, he would not have added allêlois, that is, 'to one another,' but rather 'to the priests' (sacerdotibus)" (van Poll-van de Lisdonk 2014, 426).
• →Bonhoeffer Leben ch. 5 sees this passage as giving authority to all Christians to hear and forgive one another's sins. Humble confession to a fellow Christian overcomes the central sin of pride and leads to true fellowship and community. True community is impossible as long as Christians hide their sins from one another. Confession to another helps the Christian to avoid the self-deception that might come from confessing only to God and makes God's forgiveness more concrete (Bloesch and Burtness 1996, 108–118; Müller and Schönherr 1987, 93–102).

Further Views

• →Chalon 33 recognizes that some say that sins ought to be confessed only to God, but others believe they are to be confessed to a priest. It apparently teaches that confession to priests was instituted by James: "according to the institution of the apostle" [quotation of Jas 5:15]. And so confession which is made to God cleanses sins: but that which is made to the priest, teaches us how these same sins are cleansed" (→Palmer 1959, 157; Werminghoff 1906, 280). Reproduced in →Burchard of Worms Decr. 20.145, with the added gloss that private confession is practiced by the Greeks, but confession to the priest is practiced by the "whole holy Church (tota sancta Ecclesia)" (PL 140:1011).
• →Suarez Disp. 35.1 recognizes that not all theologians are convinced that James refers to priests, but on the authority of →Chalon and theologians such as Bonaventure, he judges that the passages "is not to be despised (contemnendum)" (Berton 1861, 22:734).
• →Caesarius of Arles Serm. 67.1–2 applies the passage to the duty of his congregation to pray for those who practice public penance (paenitentia publica), including the wearing of a hairshirt (Mueller 1956, 1:318–320; Morin 1953, 1:286–287); cf. also the more general discussion of the passage in →Serm. 59.1 (adapted from Augustine).
• →Estius Comm. ep. cath. ad loc. notes three different interpretations, all of them in some manner probable (aliquo modo probabiles): (1) Christians confessing their sins to those whom they have offended (he compares Mt 5:23–24); (2) Christians confessing venial sins to one another, asking for advice, and praying for one another; (3) reference to sacramental confession to a priest (1778, 11:4382–4383).

Reformed Interpretation and Catholic Response

• →Luther Beicht 2 argues that the passage cannot refer to confession to the clergy, since it clearly says, "confess your sins to one another"—meaning that any Christian my hear the confession of another. In particular, it means that a Christian should confess his sin to one whom he has offended (Kruse 1907, 21; WA 8:155–156). Reformed confessions apply the verse to confessing to the person whom one has offended (→WCF 15.6; →Helv. Conf. II 14.7).
• →Calvin Inst. rel. 3.4.6 insists that this passage contradicts the Roman Catholic sacrament of confession to a priest only. Rather James advises Christians to confess shortcomings to one another, receive mutual advice, and pray for one another (Beveridge 1994, 1:539–540; Baum et al. 1864, 460–461).
• →Eck Ench. 8 holds that James "announces (annuciavit) here the command of God (praeceptum Dei) concerning the confessing of sin" (Fraenkel 1979, 119). Responding to the Protestant argument that the passage refers to confessing sins to one another in general, he admits that James is not precise in naming the one to whom confession is due, but only because Christ had already indicated who should absolve sinners (123–124).
• →Trent Poen. ch. 5 (→DzH 1679) references Jas 5:16 in holding that the Lord instituted "complete confession of sins (integram peccatorum confessionem), but for Jesus' institution of the sacrament of penance, it references Jn 20:23 (→Trent Poen. ch. 1 [→DzH 1670]; see also →Trent Poen. ch. 6 [→DzH 1684], referencing Mt 18:18 and Jn 20:23, on priests and bishops as ministers of penance).

16c Greatly prevails the prayer of a righteous [man when it is] at work What Makes Prayer Prevail? The passage has drawn many comments on what makes prayer effective.

Encouragement to Pray for the Intercession of the Saints

• The Orthodox →Dositheus Conf. 8 teaches that one should pray for the intercession of the saints since God listens to the righteous rather than to sinners (CCFCT 1:619; Karmires 1968, 2:751); so too →Eck Ench. 15 (Fraenkel 1979, 180). See also the application of Jas 5:14–15 to the doctrine of the intercession of the saints: →Cassian Coll. 20.8.4.
• →Calvin Comm. Jac. ad loc. "God does not hear the ungodly (impios); nor is access to God open, except through a good conscience: not that our prayers are founded on our own worthiness, but because the heart must be cleansed by faith (fide purgatum cor habere oportet) before we can present ourselves before God" (Owen 1855, 359; Reuss and Erichson 1896, 433).

Jas 5:16 and Luther's Theology of Prayer

• →Luther Tischr. 5565 judges Jas 5:16 as "one of the best verses in that epistle" (LW 54:454; WA TR 5:245). Here he cites Monica's prayers for her son Augustine as an example of effective prayer.
• The prayer of the righteous can change God's mind. →Luther Vorl. Gen. ad Gn 19:21–22 held that God commanded Christians to pray, and he promised to hear their prayers. He thus believes that an earnest prayer can change God's mind. Commenting on Lot's intercession for the town of Zoar, Luther writes, "It was God's will that the city of Zoar should be destroyed together with the others; but because Lot intercedes for it, God changes his will and does what Lot wants (mutat voluntatem Deus, et facit, quod Loth vult)." The text teaches, "Lot's prayer does this; it compels God (ea cogit Deum) not to carry out His wrathful will. God permits it to be broken and does the will of those who fear Him." If one doubts one's own worthiness in prayer, it is ineffective. Thus "you should not look at your unworthiness; you should look at God's command (mandatum Dei) and not debate whether you are worthy or not. But you should hold fast the promise that the Lord wants to do the will of those who fear Him (Dominus velit facere voluntatem timentium se)." Such examples teach that Christians should "pray boldly and with confidence (animose et confidenter oremus). If He does not give what we are asking for, He will nevertheless give something that is better; for prayer cannot be in vain (non enim oratio potest frustra esse), as James too, states, 'The prayer of a righteous man avails much if it is persistent,' that is, earnest and ardent (seria et intenta). For God cannot despise a righteous man and all his works (contemnere iustum et universa opera eius)" (LW 3:290–292; WA 43:83–84).
• Prayer must be persistent. In his comments on Mt 7:7, →Luther Matth. 5–7 ad Mt 7:7–11 cites Jas 5:16 as a motivation to remain persistent in prayer, even when it seems that God's answer is delayed. "For you have his Word, and He will have to say, 'All right, then, you may have what you want'" (LW 21:234; WA 32:493).
• A prayer of faith is not always bold and confident. →Luther Vorl. Gen. ad Gn 43:11–14 refers to Jacob's prayer in Gn 43:14 as an example of "the prayer of faith" (Jas 5:15a) that is not always outwardly bold and confident. "His reliance on the promise is very weak (infirmiter), for he laments and mourns pitifully. But since a spark and the unutterable sobbing (Rom 8:26) of faith still remain, he does not despair (non desperat) but prays." Luther admonishes, "we should accustom ourselves to pray, even though we are weak in faith." He supports this advice with a quotation of Jas 5:13, "Is anyone among you suffering? He should pray…" (LW 7:324–326; WA 44:540–541).

Fervent Prayer Is Effective

• →WCF 21.3 cites this passage in support of its teaching on fervency in prayer (CFCCT 2:632; Carruthers 1937, 130).

The Moral Efforts of the One Praying Make Prayer Effective

• The Gazan hermits Barsanuphius and John reference this passage in their teaching that the moral efforts of the one praying (e.g., wrestling with temptation, living a more ascetic life, enduring trials) make prayer effective (e.g., →Barsanuphius and John Ep. 94 [Chryssavgis 2006, 1:117; De Angelis-Noah et al. 1997, 1/2:398]; cf. →Ep. 191, 198).

Both the One Praying and the One Receiving Prayer Influence Its Effectiveness

• →Origen Fr. 1 Reg. fr. 5 "The Word (logos) shows that even if a prophet and a righteous person pray for one another, [the one praying] is not heard, unless that one [the person prayed for] shows repentance by his works (ergôᵢ deixêᵢ tên metanoian). For in this way "the powerful prayer of a righteous person is made effective" (Jas 5:16) through the [repentance of] the one sinning. In order for the matter to be brought to a conclusion, it is necessary for both to work together, both the prayer of the righteous one, and the work (ergon) of the one repenting (Klostermann 1901, 297).
• →Maximus the Confessor Quaest. Thal. 57.2: Maximus responds to the question, "What is the meaning of 'rendered effective'" in Jas 5:16c? "I know of two ways in which the "supplication of a righteous man" is "rendered effective." The first is whenever the one praying combines his supplication to God with the keeping of the commandments (meta tôn kat' entolên ergôn), not allowing his supplication to fall from his tongue as mere words and the empty echo of speech, lest it remain inactive (argên) and insubstantial (anupostaton), but rather as active (energon) and living, being animated by the observance of the commandments. For the substance (hupostasis) of prayer and supplication is quite clearly its fulfillment through the virtues…The second way is when the one who needs the prayer of the righteous man undertakes and performs the works of prayer (ta erga tês euchês), that is, when he corrects his former way of life and thereby gives strength to the supplication of the righteous man (tên deêsin ischuran tou dikaiou poioumenos), fortifying it through his own upright manner of life" (Constas 2018, 399–400; Laga and Steel 1990, 2:23–25). →Ps.-Andrew Cat. ad loc. quotes Maximus' entire lengthy answer (Albl 2024, 186–189).
• →Ps.-Oecumenius Comm. Jac. ad loc. "The prayer of the righteous prevails, when the one for whom he prays cooperates (sumprattei), through his spiritual suffering (kakôseôs pneumatikês), with the one who prays. For when others pray for us, and we devote ourselves to luxuries (spatalais), to indulgences (anesesi), and to an undisciplined life, we unloosen (ekluomen) by this the intensity (suntonon) of the prayer of the one who is exerting himself for us" (PG 119:508).
• →Palamas Hom. 31.17 comments similarly on Jas 5:16c, "But you must co-operate (dei de kai humas sunergein) with the prayers made on your behalf by changing your way of life, making confession, giving alms, and other works of repentance (dia tôn allôn ergôn tês metanoias)" (Veniamin 2009, 250).

17f Example of Elijah

Example of James Himself

• →Epiphanius Pan. 78.14.1 reports a tradition about the efficacy of James the Just's own prayer: "And once during a drought he lifted his hands to heaven and prayed, and at once heaven sent rain (ho ouranos edôken hueton)" (Williams 2013, 2:626; Holl et al. 2013, 3:464). The wording of this report has apparently been influenced by Jas 5:18.

The Powerful Influence of One Person

• →Luther Jon. ad 1:14 (Latin text) quotes this passage as an example of the scriptural principle that one person's actions can profoundly affect an entire nation or people, either for good or ill (LW 19:14; WA 13:248). 

Elijah's Example Accessible to All Humanity

• →Bede Ep. cath. ad loc. "But lest our frailty (nostra fragilitas) take fright, thinking itself unable to do things like so great a prophet who was worthy of being taken up to heaven in a fiery chariot, blessed James when he was about to speak of his prayer, advisedly began thus, 'Elijah was a man like us.'" Elijah showed his human frailty by asking for food (1Kgs 17:8–11) and by fleeing from Jezebel into the desert (1Kgs 19:1–4; Hurst 1985, 63; Hurst 1983, 222). →Glossa ord. ad loc. includes an abridged form of Bede's comments (1603, 6:1304).
• →Luther Jon. ad 4:1 notes the phrase that Elijah was "a mortal man like us" is an example of how even the saints such as Jonah have human faults (LW 19:27; WA 13:255). This should encourage all Christians, since just as God’s mercy and grace did not hold the sins of Jonah against him, so too God’s grace allows their sins to not be held against them. Such examples should prevent ordinary Christians from thinking that the experiences of the saints were completely different from their own experience (→Jon. pref. [Latin] [LW 19:6; WA 13:243]).

17c three years and six months Eschatological Interpretation →Ps.-Hilary of Arles Tract. Jac. ad loc. offers various interpretations of the "three years and six months" (McNally 1973, 75–76):

• the time of the anti-Christ (tempus Antichristi; Biblical Intertextuality Jas 5:17f);
• the three preceding ages, from the beginning to the time of David;
• the patriarchs, the prophets, and the apostles.

18a heaven gave rain Allegorical Reading

• →Lapide Comm. Jac. ad loc. references an allegorical (allegorice) reading from Augustine, taking Elijah as a type of Christ. The rain represents Christ's incarnation, the Word of God irrigating the whole world. Just as in the advent of Elijah all the idolatrous priests were killed, so in the advent of the true Elijah, Jesus, the sacrilegious rites of the pagans are destroyed (Crampon 1891, 20:225).

14f SACRAMENTOLOGY

Promulgation of the Anointing of the Sick

Roman Catholic doctrine teaches that Jesus instituted the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick (traditionally known as “Extreme Unction”), and that James "promulgated" the sacrament (Jas 5:14–15).

• →Trent Extr. unct. “This sacred anointing of the sick was instituted (instituta est) by Christ our Lord as a true and proper sacrament (vere et proprie sacramentum) of the New Testament. It is alluded to indeed (quidem insinuatum) by Mark [cf. Mk 6:13], but it is recommended to the faithful and promulgated (fidelibus commendatum ac promulgatum) by James the apostle and brother of the Lord” (→DzH 1695).
• →Inquisition Lament. 48 condemns the "modernist" teaching that "In his Epistle (Ch. 5:14–15) James did not intend to promulgate a Sacrament of Christ but only commend a pious custom (non intendit promulgare aliquod sacramentum Christi, sed commendare pium aliquem morem)" (→DzH 3448).
• →CCC 1510 “the apostolic Church has its own rite for the sick, attested (testatur) by St. James: [quotation of Jas 5:14–15]. Tradition has recognized in this rite (i.e., Jas 5:14–15) one of the seven sacraments” (cf. →CCC 1499–1532).

The Recipient of the Anointing

Development of the Sacrament

The Church recognizes a historical development in the understanding of this sacrament:

• →CCC 1512 "From ancient times in the liturgical traditions of both East and West, we have testimonies to the practice of anointings of the sick with blessed oil. Over the centuries the Anointing of the Sick was conferred more and more exclusively on those at the point of death. Because of this it received the name 'Extreme Unction.' Notwithstanding this evolution (evolutione) the liturgy has never failed to beg the Lord that the sick person may recover his health if it would be conducive to his salvation" (referencing →Trent Extr. unct. 2 [→DzH 1696]).

Extreme Unction

By the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church tended to understand the “sick” as referring exclusively to those who were dying; the ritual based on this passage was thus called “Extreme Unction” (extrema unctio), that is, the last anointing.

• →Florence Exs. Deo "This sacrament may not be given except to a sick person whose life is feared for (de cuius morte timetur)" (→DzH 1324).
• →Trent Extr. unct. ch. 3 "this anointing is to be administered to the sick, especially (praesertim) to those who are so dangerously ill that they seem near to death (qui tam periculose decumbunt, ut in exitu vitae constituti videantur); hence it is called the sacrament of the dying (sacramentum exeuntium)" (→DzH 1698). Trent argues that the sacrament is a strong safeguard against the attacks of the devil, which are particularly strong at the end of a person's life (→Trent Extr. unct. pref.; →DzH 1694).

Vatican II

The Second Vatican Council sought to return to a broader understanding and use of the sacrament.

• →Vatican II SC 73 “’Extreme unction,’” which may also and more fittingly be called ‘anointing of the sick’ (unctio infirmorum), is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death (in extremo vitae). Hence, as soon as any one of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age (in periculo mortis propter infirmitatem vel senium), the fitting time (tempus opportunum) for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived" (quoted in →CCC 1514).
• →CCC 1515 specifies that a person may receive the sacrament more than once if; for example, he recovers after an anointing and then again becomes seriously ill. “It is fitting to receive the Anointing of the Sick just prior to a serious operation. The same holds for the elderly whose frailty becomes more pronounced.”

15c they will be forgiven him Sacramentology: Effects of the Anointing of the Sick.

Traditional Teaching

• →Florence Exs. Deo "The effect is the healing of the mind and, as far as it is good for the soul, of the body as well (effectus vero est mentis sanatio et, in quantum animae expedit, ipsius enim corporis)" (→DzH 1325).
• →Trent Extr. unct. 2 quotes Jas 5:15 to identify "the reality (res) and effect (effectus) of this sacrament." The Council adds the explanation, "For the reality is the grace (gratia) of the Holy Spirit, whose anointing takes away the sins, if there be any still to be expiated, and also the remains of sin (pecatti reliquas); it comforts and strengthens the soul (animam alleviat et confirmat) of the sick person by awakening in him great confidence in the divine mercy (fiduciam excitando); supported by this, the sick bears more lightly the inconveniences and trials of his illness, and resists more easily the temptations of the devil, who lies in wait for his heel [cf. Gn 3:15]; at times it also restores bodily health (sanitatem corporis), when it is expedient for the salvation of the soul (ubi saluti animae expedierit)" (→DzH 1696).

Vatican II Reform

Reflecting a changed emphasis after Vatican II, →CCC 1520–1523 speaks of four effects:

• →CCC 1520: A particular gift of the Holy Spirit. "The first grace of this sacrament is one of strengthening, peace and courage to overcome the difficulties that go with the condition of serious illness (aegritudinis gravis) or the frailty of old age. This grace is a gift of the Holy Spirit, who renews trust and faith in God and strengthens against the temptations of the evil one, the temptation to discouragement and anguish in the face of death. This assistance from the Lord by the power of his Spirit is meant to lead the sick person to healing of the soul, but also of the body if such is God's will (si talis est Dei voluntas). Furthermore, 'if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven' (Jas 5:15)."
• →CCC 1521: Union with the Passion of Christ. "By the grace of this sacrament the sick person receives the strength and gift of uniting himself more closely to Christ's Passion: in a certain way he is consecrated (consecratur) to bear fruit by configuration to the Savior's redemptive Passion. Suffering (dolor), a consequence of original sin, acquires a new meaning; it becomes a participation (participatio) in the saving work of Jesus." Cf. →Vatican II LG 11 "By the sacred anointing of the sick and the prayer of her priests the whole Church commends the sick to the suffering and glorified Lord, asking that He may lighten their suffering and save them (ut eos alleviet et salvet) [cf. Jas 5:14–16]; she exhorts them, moreover, to contribute to the welfare of the whole people of God by associating themselves freely (libere sociantes) with the passion and death of Christ" (1965, 15).
• →CCC 1522: An ecclesial grace. "The sick who receive this sacrament, 'by freely uniting themselves to the passion and death of Christ,' 'contribute to the good of the people of God (→Vatican II LG 11). By celebrating this sacrament the Church, in the communion of the saints, intercedes for the benefit of the sick person, and he, for his part, through the grace of this sacrament, contributes to the sanctification of the Church (ad Ecclesiae confert sanctificationem) and to the good of all men for whom the Church suffers and offers herself through Christ to God the Father."
• →CCC 1523: A preparation for the final journey. "If the sacrament of anointing of the sick is given to all who suffer from serious illness and infirmity, even more rightly is it given to those at the point of departing this life; so it is also called sacramentum exeuntium (the sacrament of those departing) [referencing →Trent Extr. unct. 3 (→DzH 1698)]. The Anointing of the Sick completes our conformity to the death and Resurrection of Christ, just as Baptism began it. It completes the holy anointings that mark the whole Christian life: that of Baptism which sealed the new life in us, and that of Confirmation which strengthens us for the combat of this life. This last anointing fortifies the end of our earthly life like a solid rampart (firmo praesidio) for the final struggles before entering the Father's house."

17a Elijah Scriptural exemplum of Powerful Prayer To illustrate his point about the power of the prayer of the righteous, James uses the scriptural example of Elijah. This is one of several scriptural exempla employed by James; see Literary Devices Jas 2:21a; Literary Devices Jas 5:10a. For a discussion on the significance of James’ choice of Elijah, see →Förster 2022.

10–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: Special and General Feasts: Prophets; one of three reading options.
• →BL: For the sick (or Jas 5:10–16).
• →BL: For rain (or Jas 5:16–20).
• →BL: For oil for the sick.

13–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: For confession.
• →BL: Julian June 14, Feast of the Prophet Elisha. 
• →RML: Saturday, Week 7, Year 2.
• →RCL: Proper 21, Year B.

16–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: Julian July 20, Feast of the Prophet Elijah.
• →RML (1570): Mass of the Major and Minor Rogation Days (25 April; and Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension).

13–16 Use in Lectionary

• →RML (1570): Votive Mass for the sick.

12–20 Use in Lectionary

• →BL: Julian October 29, Saints Abramios and Mary of Edessa.