2–7 Nineveh A City of Biblical Imagination See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 Nineveh.

2–7 Nineveh Assyria's Last Capital See Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:2.

2a great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

7a great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

2:5a as far as the throat Targumic Abstraction

• →Tg. Jon. "The waters surrounded me until the death."

The Targum chooses to translate nepeš as the abstract concept “death” rather than the concrete body part “throat.” This translation changes the passage from a representational description of an imminent near-death experience to an abstract description of ultimate fate.

1:1–2:1; 2:10 Use in Lectionary →RML: Monday, Week 27 in Year I.

2:3a heart of the seas Polysemous Phrase

• This phrase typically refers to the (unsearchable) open “high seas” (e.g., Prv 23:34; 30:19; Ez 27:4,26).
• Likewise it also refers to the (unfathomable) “depths of the seas” (e.g., Ps 46:2; Ez 28:8).

2:2c belly of Sheol Intentional Intestinal Metaphor The phrase “belly of Sheol” only appears in Jonah (Vocabulary Jon 2:2c).

• Already in M, there may be an intentional parallel between this metaphor and Jonah’s presence in the belly of the fish in Jon 2:1, although different words for “belly” appear in the Hebrew (Jon 2:1: mē‘îm “innards”; Jon 2:2 beṭen).
• G, however, employs the same term on both occasions (koilia), meaning “womb” or “stomach.” Moreover, G has “sea-monster” instead of “fish” and “Hades” instead of “Sheol.”

2:6a I descended Underworld in Ugaritic Literature A myth about the feast and drunkenness of El (Ilu) assimilates downward motion with the dead and the underworld:

• Myth of El’s Banquet 1.114.22–23 “El fell down as though dead / El was like those who go down into the underworld” (→Wyatt 2002, 412).

Likewise, consider Baal’s words to his messengers to Mot, the god of earth and underworld:

• Baal Cycle 1.4.8.5–9 “Raise the mountain on your hands / the hill on top of your hands / and go down into the house of the couch of the earth / be numbered among those who go down into the earth” (→Wyatt 2002, 112–113; cf. the parallel in 1.5.5.13–16, this time said to Baal himself).

2:3b breakers G: swells G: meteôrismoi (“lifting up”) is related to the verb meteôrizô (“to raise to a height”) in the context of being on the high sea.

2:10 vomited Aquila's Use of Homeric Greek The verb exemeô “vomit forth, disgorge,” used by Aquila’s translation, is used of Charybdis in The Odyssey ( →Ziegler 1984 ad loc.).

• →Homer Od. 12.235–239 “For on one side lay Scylla and on the other divine Charybdis terribly sucked down the salt water of the sea. Verily whenever she belched it forth (exemeseise), like a cauldron on a great fire she would seethe and bubble in utter turmoil.” 

4 Transposed Verse?

• Around 11 to 20 mss. of M move Jon 4:5 to the end of Jon 3:4.

• This is apparently because in Jon 4:5 Jonah awaits Nineveh’s demise. But why would he await its demise after its visible conversion? Thus, in the mind of an ancient redactor, the events of Jon 4:5 must have taken place after Jonah’s preaching, but before the Ninevites’ conversion.

According to the principle of lectio difficilior, the internal evidence of M, and the external evidence of G, V, and S, the verse in Jon 4:5 should not be moved.

8d violence that is in their hands Metaphorical Containers of Violence While hands (kāp) can enact violence, here they metaphorically serve as its containers (cf. 1Chr 12:17; Jb 16:17; Ps 7:3; Is 59:6).  

2:5b seaweed Contextual Meaning

• The word sûp, a singular collective noun, could denote any aquatic plant, such as seaweed, in the present context.
• Throughout the OT, however, sûp is most closely associated with the Exodus. Moses is found among the reeds (sûp) as an infant (Ex 2:5); likewise, he leads the Hebrews across the “Sea of Reeds” (yam-sûp) on dry land (Ex 14:16,21–22; cf. V in Comparison of Versions Jon 2:5b). 

7a the decree of the king Aramaic Influence?

• The Hebrew ṭa‘am can mean “taste” or “authority” (see Literary Devices Jon 3:7ab). 
• Its Aramaic cognate developed the sense of an “official command” or “decree.”

7a saying Enunciative Ambiguity Determining the phrasing of the royal decree has long vexed translators. The difficulty arises from the many verbs of speech that appear in the first half of the verse.

• Translators from the rabbis onward have often maintained that the first two verbs, the hip‘il of z‘q (“cried out”) and the qal of ’mr (“said”), along with the locative phrase bᵉnînᵉwé (“in Nineveh”) belonged to the introduction of the decree because the Masoretes’ cantillation marks indicate a strong stop (zaqeph qaton) after the locative phrase (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 125–126; →Limburg 1993, 80; →Simon 1999, 31). Thus, the proclamation would begin with “By the decree.”

• Another suggestion is that, because speech acts in Hebrew narrative typically follow immediately upon verbs of speech, the locative phrase “In Nineveh” should begin the proclamation (→Sasson 1990, 252–253).

• Finally, the present translation maintains that the discourse of the proclamation begins after the final verb of speech (lē’mōr “saying”), which marks direct speech throughout the Hebrew Bible (for discussion, see →Miller 2003, 196; →Tucker 2006, 75–76; for examples, see Gn 39:14–15; Ex 15:1; Nm 30:1; Jo 9:22–23; Jgs 16:18; 21:10–11). The Masoretic tradition supports this reading by providing the strongest possible stop (atnaḥ) with the last verb of speech (lē’mōr). This is likewise supported by the translation decisions of G and V, wherein the proclamation unambiguously begins after lē’mōr (i.e., legôn and dicens). Additionally, the medieval cola et commata of V begin a new line after dicens, implying a shift from narration to direct speech.

1:9b,13a; 2:10 dry land TYPOLOGY Motif of God's Mighty Deeds The use of yabbāšâ is particularly interesting here. It is associated:

• with the Chaoskampf mythology that undergirds the creation account (Gn 1:1–2:3; cf. Jon 1:9; yabbāšâ is also used in Ps 95:5 wherein God “formed the dry land”);

• with Israel crossing the Yam Sûp (Sea of Reeds) in Ex 14:16,22,29; 15:19; Ps 66:6; Neh 9:11;

• with Israel crossing the Jordan River (Jo 4:22; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:5b). 

Referentially

In Jon 1:13 it probably has a meaning similar to Jon 2:10 (i.e., the shore). In Ex 4:9 and Is 44:3 it underlines a contrast between (some) liquid and dry land.

Typologically

If one takes into account a possible link to the crossing of the Sea of Reeds (Jon 2:5c [M-2:6c]), it may suggest that—after all—God granted Jonah a safe passage, just as he did to Israel in Ex 14. →Jenson (2008, 53) suggests that the mention of “dry land” implies an inversion of the Exodus account: whereas the Egyptians are thrown into the sea and die, Jonah is thrown into the sea and lives.

1:10–2:7 Use in Lectionary

• →CPL: Friday in Pasha Week, 12^th Hour, 2^nd Reading. 

2:3a depths Possible Insertion?

Yes

→Wolff (1986, 126) argues that mᵉṣûlâ ("depths") is an insertion—probably of a marginal note—for three reasons:

• The unequivocal meaning (“depths of the seas”) clarifies the ambiguous “heart of the seas.”
• The term lacks an “indispensable” preposition.
• The term disrupts the meter, falling in the middle of a “five-stress line.”

No

→O'Connor (1980, 146–163) has shown that meter inadequately describes the Hebrew poetic system and, at most, appears to be a tertiary feature; whereas matching (or parallelism) plays a much more important role in the system of syntactic constraints that underlie Hebrew verse. As a result, Wolff’s final point need not be accepted. In like manner, his account of the parallel “depths of seas” // “heart of seas” can be dispensed with. Finally, one need only acknowledge that small particles (like prepositions) often fall away in poetry and consistently remain difficult to account for (→Holladay 1999a; →Holladay 1999b).

2:4b Nevertheless Or: "How?" (Hebrew Variant)

• M contains the adverb ’ak at the beginning of v. 4b.
• 4QXII^g (4Q82, fr. 78ii, 82-87:3) exhibits the interrogative adverb ’ēkā[h] with a defective spelling, thus: "how will I again look...?" (→DJD XV, 310).
• Theodotion's reading of pôs supports that of 4QXII^g, while Symmachus (isôs) and G (ara), though inconclusive, would seem to support M (→Ziegler 1984, 247). 
• S and V are aligned with M.

2:5a enveloped Orthographic Variant

• 4QXII^g, fr. 84 contains an orthographic variant: instead of the plene ’ppwny, it has ’ppny (→DJD XV, 310).

2:6c you raised : S | S Manuscript: you raised towards you

• One old Syriac lectionary (11l4, 11^th c.) adds lwtk (towards you).

This variant makes explicit that God not only has saved Jonah (delivered from the corruption) but has drawn the prophet to himself as well.

2:3a,5a surrounded Poetic Non-Sequential Use of the Yiqtol Form In Hebrew poetry the qatal and yiqtol forms sometimes alternate to achieve grammatical parallelism. →Berlin (2008, 36) observes that this kind of qatal-yiqtol shift occurs for stylistic rather than semantic reasons (i.e., it does not indicate a temporal sequence). Thus, the yiqtol of sbb in this verse refers to an action in the past (Grammar Jon 2:3b). 

2:3b passed over Interpretation of Qatal One could justifiably translate ‘br using the pluperfect tense, instead of the simple past: hence, the breakers “had passed over.” Though the qatal is typically rendered with the simple past, it can be more broadly understood to denote action that takes place prior to a given narrative’s time-frame. This translation choice would make even more sense if one wishes to emphasize that the storm has already passed when Jonah finds himself in the calm innards of the fish. See also Grammar Jon 2:3a,5a.

2:8 those who revere Unique Pi‘el Form Mᵉšammᵉrîm is the pi‘el plural participle of the verb šmr (in qal “to keep,” “to observe,” “to celebrate”). Although the pi‘el usually has as an emphatic or intensive sense, here the verb should be understood as having a factitive or causative nuance. Hence it could be woodenly rendered, “those who bring it about that they are observed,” or, more elegantly, “adore,” “worship,” or “revere.” An echo of this passage in qal can be found at Ps 31:6 (M-31:7); perhaps the author intended to link Jonah’s prayer with the psalm (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

2:9b Salvation Ancient Accusative? M divides the phrase as if the last two words of the verse were to create a nominal sentence. Nevertheless, the morphology suggests that the unusual form of the noun, yᵉšû‘ātâ instead of yᵉšû‘â, can be interpreted as a trace of the ancient Hebrew accusative (thus →Gesenius 1847). In that case, the renderings of G and V are accurate.

2:3a,5a surrounded "Growing Phrase" →Magonet (1983, 40) indicates that two instances of sbb (“to surround”) should be interpreted as cumulative or progressive, given the change of subject. First the “river” (or “current”) surrounds Jonah (Jon 2:3) and then, the “abyss” (Jon 2:5). This progressive action—or “growing phrase,” in Magonet’s words—emphasizes downward movement from the water’s surface to the depths (cf. Literary Devices Jon 1:3b,5d; 2:6a).

2:8 revere vain illusions Antithetic Parallel Within the context of Jon 2, as well as in Ps 31 (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8), the text mentions those who “revere vain illusions,” not so much to condemn idol worship, but rather to affirm the importance of worshipping God alone. That is, the text wishes to emphasize what one should not do.

NARRATION Characterization of the Speaker 

Jonah thereby creates an antithetical parallel between himself and idol worshippers which emphasizes his own rectitude as one who worships the God of Israel.

PRAGMATICS Question to the Reader

Finally, the abstract nature of the phrase hablé šāw’ leaves the door open for “relecture”—what are the vain illusions that later readers, including ourselves, might revere?

2:9a sacrifice Sacrifices and Vows Jonah promises to offer a sacrifice and make vows if God saves him. This calls to mind the actions of the Gentile sailors who offered sacrifices and vowed vows after the storm’s miraculous cessation (Jon 1:16).

2:2c the belly of Sheol Underworld ("Mot") as a Voracious Monster, in Ugaritic Literature Thus speaks Baal to his messengers:

• Cycle of Baal 1.4.8.15–19 “But take care, attendants of the god / do not draw near divine Mot, / lest he offer you up like a lamb in his mouth, / like a kid in the opening of his maw!” (→Wyatt 2002, 113). 

2:3a the seas and a river A Synonymous Parallel: Sea and River In Ugaritic myth, Yam (Sea) and Nahar (River) are used in parallel, as if they are synonyms:

• Baal Cycle 1.2.1.45–46: Baal says, “I say to Yam your master, to your l[ord, Ruler Nahar]: hear the word of Hadd the Avenger” (→Wyatt 2002, 63).
• Baal Cycle 1.2.4.19,22 "All-Driver, drive Yam away, drive Yam from his throne, Nahar from the siege of his dominion!…Strike the skull of Prince Yam, between the eyes of Ruler Nahar” (→Wyatt 2002, 67).

2:9a thanksgiving Harmonization in G? M’s tôdâ is rendered by a doublet in G: ainesis kai exomologêsis. This doublet often appears in liturgical texts (G-Is 51:3; Jdt 15:14; Sir 39:20). In turn, M employs a similar doublet, hōdôt wᵉhallēl, in 1Chr 25:3 (cf. 2Chr 20:22).

2:5b seaweed Explicit Link to the Sea of Reeds

• →Tg. Jon. "Sea of Reeds is suspended over my head."

This amplified translation, yām sûp (rather than M: sûp), makes explicit M’s implicit allusion to the Exodus (Vocabulary Jon 2:5b; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:5b).

2:3a you cast me God, Not the Sailors, Cast Jonah into Sea

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. “Jonah shows here what dreadful temptations presented themselves to him while he was endeavoring to offer up prayers. It came first to his mind that God was his most inveterate enemy. For Jonah did not then think of the sailors and the rest who had cast him into the sea; but his mind was fixed on God: this is the reason why he says, ‘Thou, Lord, hadst cast me into the deep, into the heart of the sea’; and then, ‘Thy billows, Thy waves.’”

2:9b what I have vowed Confessional Polemic: Calvin Compares Jonah's Vow to Those of the Church Fathers and the Papists

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "And he afterwards mentions his vows, I will pay, he says, my vows. We have stated elsewhere in what light we are to consider vows. The holy Fathers did not vow to God, as the Papists of this day are wont to do, who seek to pacify God by their frivolous practices; one abstains for a certain time from meat, another puts on sackcloth, another undertakes a pilgrimage, and another obtrudes on God some new ceremony. There was nothing of this kind in the vows of the holy Fathers; but a vow was the mere act of thanksgiving, or a testimony of gratitude: and so Jonah joins his vows here with the sacrifice of praise. We hence learn that they were not two different things; but he repeats the same thing twice. Jonah, then, had declared his vow to God for no other purpose but to testify his gratitude."

2:10 And YHWH Paragraph Demarcations 

• At Jon 2:10 (M-2:11), M has paragraph demarcations (vacant spaces) prior to (sᵉtûmâ) and following (pᵉtûḥâ).
• 4QXII^g has a vacant space only prior to Jon 2:10. Thus, this verse appears to belong to the next unit of Jon 3 (cf. →DJD XV, 311).

2:10 Yhwh spoke Literary Structures in G: A Double Inclusio In G, there is a double inclusio between Jon 1:17 and Jon 2:10:

• The divine passive "it was commanded" (prosetagê) forms an inclusio with Jon 1:17 where the same verb (prosetaxen) is used. This explains why the translator chose to render wayyō’mer with prosetagê in Jon 2:10, since this is not a particularly close correspondance.
• Similarly, the verb “cast out” (exebalen) concludes the sea scene begun in Jon 1:15 when the sailors “cast” (exebalon) Jonah into the sea.

2:10 Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

2:10 vomited Jonah Preserved by Miraculous Means

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "It was an incredible miracle, that Jonah should have continued alive and safe in the bowels of the fish for three days. For how was it that he was not a thousand times smothered or drowned by waters? We know that fish continually draw in water: Jonah could not certainly respire while in the fish; and the life of man without breathing can hardly continue for a minute. Jonah, then, must have been preserved beyond the power of nature. Then how could it have been that the fish should cast forth Jonah on the shore, except God by his unsearchable power had drawn the fish there? Again, who could have supernaturally opened its bowels and its mouth? His coming forth, then, was in every way miraculous, yea, it was attended with many miracles."

2:10 YHWH spoke to the fish The Fish Hears God's Voice

• →Wesley Notes "Though fishes understand not as man, yet they have ears to hear their Creator."

1–3a God Commissions His Prophet Again Just as the book began with God commissioning Jonah for a task (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:1), the story resets, with a nearly identical commission (Literary Devices Jon 3:1f).

• One may dispense with reducing it to a doublet through redaction criticism: the repetition reads well as an intentional parallel, emphasizing this time the brevity of time between divine mandates to prophesy.

• Retellings of “Jonah and the Whale” for children often end here, assuming that the point of the story is that Jonah has learned his lesson, namely, to obey God (Literature Jon 3:3a). Even readers who do not stop here might subscribe to that interpretation. Over-familiarity with the story and with typical interpretations can lead to interpretive ruts and limit one’s ability to read imaginatively.

• A slow reading of the text with a kind of intentional forgetting can lead us to ask fresh questions about what we find: Has Jonah been changed by his experience? Has he been convinced to do “what is right”? Or is he simply resigned and complying because he knows he cannot get out of it?

Jonah’s internal disposition is hidden from readers who have not yet learned why he fled. Judging by his behavior, we can conclude that he has learned something new: he cannot hope to flee from his task. Moreover, we can tell that he does not immediately return to it since God must again tell him to go to Nineveh.

2a Go Morphological Variant

• M reads lēk (qal imperative).
• 4QXII^g (4Q82 f78ii+82-87:11) attests lē[k]â, which is a qal imperative with a paragogic -he as a suffix (→DJD XV, 311).

The imperative lēkâ is a form which occurs several times in M (e.g., Gn 31:44; Ex 3:10), though it is usually followed by a cohortative verb. 

2b the proclamation that : M | QXII^a: the proclamation according to which (Clarifying Variant?)

• 4QXII^a (4Q76 f22:2) contains a plus compared to M: kzwt (“according to that”; →DJD XV, 231).
• This is reflected in the text of G: kata (“according to”).

Both texts seek to clarify that the message referred to in this verse is the same as that of Jon 1:2.

1 the word of Yhwh was to Semantics See Grammar Jon 1:1; Literary Genre Jon 1:1.

2b call to + proclamation — The Internal Adjunct Returns The verb qr’ and the cognate noun qᵉrî’â form an internal adjunct, which is a stylistic device the author employs several times in the book.

• In this context, the use of the device seems to highlight Jonah’s compliant behavior.

• Further, it should be noted that it is possible that the author created this noun form for the sake of this construction, thus demonstrating his creativity (cf. →Introduction §1.2; Vocabulary Jon 3:2b).

1ff TYPOLOGY Elijah and Elisha as Types of Jonah See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f.

1 second time MOTIF Repeated Commission The term šēnît is common, but only here does it imply that God has given a prophet the same commission a second time.

A Second Time

• Jeremiah receives a second (new) word (Jer 1:13; 13:3).

• Haggai receives as second (new) word on the same day (Hg 2:20).

• Elsewhere, the term is common for the repetition of actions (e.g., dreaming in Gn 41:5; 1Kgs 9:2).

Second Chances

• In 1Kgs 13 a man of God is tricked into disobedience by another who says he has received a word from God. The man of God is killed for his disobedience.

• Here in Jonah, however, the disobedient prophet gets a second chance, which is in keeping with the portrayal of God as “a gracious and compassionate God, slow to anger, and abounding in love” (Jon 4:2).

2b call to Common Imperative Directed to the Prophets See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2; 3:2b.

1–5,10 Use in Lectionary

• →RML: 3^rd Sunday in Year B.
• →RCL: 3^rd Sunday after Epiphany, Year B.

1 second Two or Three Calls?

• Considering both Jon 3:1 and 2Kgs 14:25, some suggest that Jonah received a total of three messages: two concerning Nineveh, and one concerning territory taken by foreign conquest. 
• Others suggest that the restoration of land in 2Kgs was analogous to the earlier restoration of Nineveh under Jonah’s preaching (→b. Yebam. 98a).
• Rabbinic tradition recognizes total repentance when a sinner presented with identical circumstances chooses otherwise: thus the story demonstrates Jonah’s complete repentance in Jon 3:1 (→Rambam Hilch. Tesh. 2.1).  

2b call to A Gentler Mandate In comparing the prepositions of Jon 1:2 (‘ālêhā) to Jon 3:2 (’ēlêhā), some rabbis identify a gentler mandate in the latter passage. 

• For the significance of the distinction, rabbis compared the proclamation of trouble in Lam 1:16 (a “cry against”) to Jon 1:2 and considered the more favorable connotation of the “cry to” in Ez 36:29 as the apt parallel of Jon 3:2.
• If such a distinction in the language is confirmed, it reintroduces the question of Jonah’s repentance since the circumstances of each call differ (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 119).

1 Now, the word Jonah, a Type of Christ’s Agony

• →Gloss. ord. "All of this is fitting for Christ according to the form of a servant: that he is ordered; that he obeys; that he does not want it; that he is compelled once again to want it; that the second time he follows his Father's will" (cf. Lk 22:42–44).

4b Forty days more, and Nineveh will be overturned A Minimal Sentence with Maximal Impact The compact structure of Jonah’s oracle against Nineveh renders each word significant.

• Emphasis falls on the final participle “will be overturned” (nehpāket), which recalls the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn 19:21,25,29).
• Based on the oracle’s cadence, it may be reminiscent of a lament (i.e., qînâ, →Limburg 1993, 80).

4b Forty days more, and Nineveh will be overturned (Prophetic) Oracle? Several devices make this phrase sound like an oracle (Literary Devices Jon 3:4b), though it differs from other oracles seen in the Bible (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:4b). The possibility of giving this prophecy a positive interpretation—namely, that Nineveh will be overturned (i.e., turned around) in forty days—may also indicate that it is not to be read solely as a portent of doom (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 3:4b; Christian Tradition Jon 3:4b,10b; 4:1) .

4 Jesus Proclaims Judgment on a City

• Jesus proclaims judgment upon the city of Jerusalem and laments its impending end from beyond the city walls (Mt 23:37–39; Lk 19:41–44). Again, Jesus’ obedient delivery of the message of God’s judgment and mercy stand in opposition to Jonah’s recalcitrant hopes for Nineveh’s destruction as he too watches from beyond its walls (Jon 4:1–3).

Consider likewise the proclamations of judgment upon Babylon in the Book of Revelation (which comes to replace Nineveh in the biblical imagination:  Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 Nineveh).

4b Forty days more and Nineveh will be overturned Terse Oracular Formula Jonah’s prophecy to the Ninevites is very brief compared to those of other prophets.

• It lacks an opening formula such as “Thus says the Lord...” (cf. 1Sm 15:2; Is 10:24; Hg 2:6).
• It does not make formulaic curses using the term hôy (“woe”; Is 5:8; 28:1; 33:1; Hb 2:6,9,12,15; Am 5:18). 
• Likewise, it does not conclude with anathemas, such as “cursed is anyone who...” (Gn 9:25; Dt 27:15–26). 

There is one very close parallel to Jonah’s terse oracle, namely Zephaniah’s proclamation against the Ethiopians: “You also, O Ethiopians, shall be slain by my sword” (Zep 2:12). 

4b Nineveh will be overturned Tobit on Jonah and Nineveh  Despite Nineveh’s repentance in the latter half of Jon 3, Tobit is confident that the city will be destroyed—indeed he welcomes it, for it is a sign of the diaspora’s end and the coming of the messianic age. As seen below, it is possible that Tobit has Nahum’s prophecy in mind; moreover, perhaps Tobit’s interpretation of Jonah’s prophecy represents one way of maintaining its veracity. If Nineveh did not see immediate destruction because they heeded Jonah, then, at some point in the future, its prophesied destruction would inevitably come. For other strategies of handling this difficulty, cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 3:4b; Christian Tradition Jon 3:4b,10b; 4:1 . 

• Flee Nineveh: In Tobit’s final speech from his deathbed (Tb 14:4–8), he counsels his son to take his family and leave Nineveh, for the promised destruction of the Assyrians is about to befall it. At Tb 14:4, G explicitly mentions Jonah: hoti pepeismai hosa elalêsen Iônas ho prophêtês peri Nineuê hoti katastraphêsetai “For I trust what Ionas the prophet said about Nineue, that it will be overthrown.” This passage is not in V, which follows an Aramaic original.

• God’s mercy belongs to Israel: A second, and perhaps ironic, parallel between the books surfaces when Tobit’s counsel also includes a prediction of the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem and the deportation of Judeans, who will eventually be returned to the land because “God will have mercy on them” (Tb 14:5), the same fate that awaits the Ninevites in Jonah.

• Nahum replaces Jonah: In many translations of this passage, Tobit refers not to Jonah’s prophecy but to Nahum’s.

The Book of Tobit concludes with an account of Tobit’s death. Yet, before Tobit dies, he receives the news of Nineveh’s destruction and the leading out of her people at the hands of the Medes. At this news he rejoices and is able to die in peace (Tb 14:14–15).

3b great city Nineveh's status Why is Nineveh “God’s” or “to God” or “for God” (lē’lōhîm)?

• →Kimchi Comm.: lē’lōhîm is an idiom that denotes utter immensity. E.g., Ps 36:6 harᵉré ’ēl (“enormously high mountains”); Ps 80:10 ’ārzé ’ēl (“enormously tall trees”); Sg 8:6 ’ēš šalhebetyâ (“an exceedingly intense flame”).

• →Rashbam Comm. Pent.: likewise Nimrod is described in Gn 10:9 as a hunter lipné YHWH, meaning, “an exceedingly mighty hunter.”

• →Baḥya Kad: the phrase means that Nineveh’s greatness is due to God’s power, not Assyria’s.

• →ibn Ezra Comm.: Nineveh was previously God-fearing, but had degenerated by Jonah’s time.

See also Grammar Jon 3:3b; Literary Devices Jon 3:3b.

4a started Wait or begin? Rabbis differ on the translation of wayyāḥel. Without vowel pointing, the wayyiqtol of yḥl ("to wait") and ḥll ("to begin") are identical. 

• →Malbim Gé’ ḥizzāyôn says that Jonah waited one day before delivering his prophecy; but his meaning unites the two possible interpretations, since Jonah waited by walking one day's journey into the city before beginning to prophesy.
• →Baḥya Kad says that Jonah "waited in anticipation" for God to reveal exactly what his prophecy should be. This came only after Jonah had spent a day walking through the city. 

3b belonging to God A Great City to God

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. Jon 3:5 "Jonah said that Nineveh was a city great to God. This form of speech is common in Scripture: for the Hebrews call that Divine, whatever it be, that is superior or excellent: so they say, the cedars of God, the mountains of God, the fields of God, when they are superior in height or in any other respect. Hence a city is called the city of God, when it is beyond others renowned" (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 3:3b).

4f Jonah’s Preaching: Deception for the Purpose of Salvation?

• →Origen Hom. Jer. 19.7 "Does God for our salvation deceive and say certain things so that the sinner ceases doing what he might do if he had not heard certain of these words? Was the one who says, ‘Yet three days and Nineveh shall be destroyed,’ speaking as one who speaks truly or not? Or as one who deceives by a deceit that converts? If that kind of conversion did not happen, what was said no longer a deceit but already truth, there would have been a destruction that followed for Nineveh. It was up to those who hear."

4a Jonah Tobit: Jonah or Nahum? Tobit predicts the destruction of Nineveh based on the prophecy of Jonah (Tb 14:4–8; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:4b). Some English translations of Tb 14:4 replace “Jonah” with “the prophets of Israel” or “Nahum”—due to his prophecy of Nineveh’s destruction (Na 1:1–3; 2:7). While the destruction predicted by Jonah did not happen because the Ninevites repented, their repentance did not necessarily cancel Nahum’s aforementioned prophecy.

7b–8a; 4:11b animal Specific or General The term bᵉhēmâ can generally refer to all animals, as opposed to human beings; or it can more specifically denote domesticated animals. Since it is paired here with hā’ādām, we have opted for the more general meaning (Comparison of Versions Jon 3:7b,8a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:5,7; 4:11).

7f Series of Jussive Clauses: A Solemn Command Lacking a genuine 3^rd person imperative, Hebrew employs jussive commands in both positive and negative (’al) forms (→GK 109). Given similar limitations in the Latin language, V employs an analogous construction—the hortatory subjunctive; Greek, however, has a 3^rd person imperative, which G uses.

We have translated the jussive clauses of v. 7 using a modal verb instead of the typical English jussive: “neither human…shall taste anything,” rather than “let neither human…taste anything” (cf. RSV; JPS). Our translation seems to give more force to the king’s command.

6a word Ironic Ambiguity The dābār reaches the king, but it is ambiguous whether this is:

• the “news” or “rumor” of recent events in the city,
• the “word” that was proclaimed by Jonah.

7b human nor animal Merism?

• →Trible (1994, 185) suggests that this expression, which she translates “the-human and-the-animal,” is a merism referring to all manner of life.
• The second entity (“herd nor flock”) may define what is meant by the term “animal.” The king declares that the people and their domestic animals are bound by the decree, not all manner of life.

9a,10b; 4:2e relent NARRATION Characterization of God The theme and vocabulary connected with relenting/repenting (nḥm) are repeated several times within a few short verses. While the people turn (šwb), God relents (Jon 3:9–10). On the other hand, Jon 4:2 makes it clear that this quality of Yhwh pertains to His very nature.

10b evil Leitwort in the Service of Irony See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

7b,8a humans nor beasts of burden + oxen nor sheep + people and beast — (S) Alternation of Number in S: Heightened Register of the Decree?

• In M there is a series of three merisms (human-animal; herd-flock; human-animal) that strongly emphasizes the fast’s comprehensiveness.
• The nouns used in these merisms are all collective singular nouns in M, whereas in G and V they are translated with plural nouns.
• In S, however, there is an interesting stylistic alternation between plural and collective singular forms: “humans nor beasts…oxen nor sheep…people and beast.”

For the sake of readability, this unique stylistic feature is not brought out in the present translation.  It is possible that this translation descision was made in order to accentuate the orality of the message since it introduces grammatical parallelism that is often found in poetry.  

8b mightily Septuagint Free Translation

• bᵉḥāzqâ ("with force," "loudly"): M | G: ektenôs ("earnestly," "fervently")

This translation decision reflects the translator’s freedom in rendering individual terms.

8d violence : M | G: unrighteousness | V: iniquity (Semantic Range)

Glosses for ḥāmās (“violence”)

• G: adikia (“unrighteousness”);

• V: iniquitas (“iniquity”).

The semantic overlap obtains throughout G and V where ḥāmās is glossed with either of these terms.

6a the word reached the king MOTIF The King's Response Kings can respond to prophets in many ways, including:

Acceptance

• When David receives the word from Nathan regarding his sin with Bathsheba (2Sm 12:1–13), he immediately admits, “I have sinned against the Lord.”
• When besieged by the Assyrians—who demand that the Hebrews surrender—Hezekiah rends his clothes, covers himself with sackcloth, and goes into the House of God (2Kgs 19:1).

Rejection

• Jeremiah 36 recounts events of prophetic proclamation and rejection similar to Jonah: Baruch writes down a message at the command of Jeremiah, while Jehoiakim, who receives a message from Jeremiah via Baruch, burns the scroll bearing its contents, which constitutes an overt rejection. A year later a copy is read in the Temple, where Gemariah’s son hears it and reports to the nobles. Eventually, the nobles pass it to Jehoiakim, who calls for the prophet, listens to the whole message, and again rejects it outright (Jer 36:20–26).

Delay

• When deciding whether to move as a coalition in war, Jehoshaphat inquires whether there were other prophets to consult because “Micaiah the son of Imlah…doth not prophesy good concerning me, but evil” (1Kgs 22:8, JPS).

The king of Nineveh’s immediate acceptance of the message is similar to Hezekiah’s actions of mourning: when besieged by the Assyrians—who, in turn, demand that the Hebrews surrender—he rends his clothes, covers himself with sackcloth, and goes into the House of God (2Kgs 19:1).

3:10–4:11 Use in Lectionary

• →RCL: Proper 20, Year A.

2:3a the seas See Literary Devices Jon 1:4ab the sea.

2:10 on the dry land The Euxine or Black Sea

• →Josephus A.J. 9.212–213 “It is also reported that Jonah was swallowed down by a whale, and that when he had been there three days, and as many nights, he was vomited out upon the Euxine Sea, and this alive, and without any hurt upon his body.”

5b from their great ones to their small ones Merism The merism here refers to power and status, not size. This foreshadows the city’s repentance, of which the king, the nobles, townsfolk, and even the animals partake.

1:3b,5d; 2:6a descended Repetition, Meaning: Inverted Symbolism of Directions

Ever Higher

Elsewhere in the Bible, departure from Jerusalem is always descent while movement toward the Holy City is always ascent. Movement to and from Egypt is similarly rendered.

Ever Lower

In Jonah the verb yārad appears four times. Whereas Jon 1:2 suggests that to get to the Lord’s face, one needs to “ascend,” Jonah decisively takes the opposite direction. He descends first to Joppa, then to the ship (Jon 1:3) (2x), then to the bottom of it (Jon 1:5), to finish with a descent to the “roots of the mountains” in his prayer (Jon 2:6 [= V-2:7]).

• In one sense, the terminology bears the weight of prophetic call and response. The cry of Nineveh’s evil has come up to Yhwh and Jonah is commissioned to “go down” to Nineveh.
• On another level, the theme of descent gathers narrative weight throughout the story. First Jonah goes down to Joppa and finds a ship that he goes down into (Jon 1:3). Later, when the sea is raised to rage by the wind of God, the reader finds that Jonah has already gone down further into the ship’s bowels and is fast asleep (Jon 1:5). In their attempts to calm the storm, the sailors follow Jonah’s command to throw him overboard. Cast from the ship, Jonah begins the unexpected journey further down into the sea inside the belly of the great fish. Therein, his prayer records his descent (I descended) to “rock bottom”—the ’ereṣ at the bottom of the sea which is the gates of the Pit—and declares Yhwh’s ability to redeem from the deepest depths (Jon 2:6).

1:9b,13a; 2:10 the dry land Leitwort With all its theological significance (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10), “dry land” also appears as a Leitwort in Jonah.

2:1 Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

2:4b your holy Temple Stained-Glass of Jonah The scroll presented by Jonah reads:

• RURSUM VIDEBO TEMPLUM SANCTUM DOMINI: "Again shall I see the holy Temple of the Lord.” 

1:17–2:1; 2:10 fish Three Consecutively Swallowed Fish?

• The three fish may refer to the rabbinic exegesis identifying three different animals, because of the apparent shift in their grammatical genders (Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10).

2:1 "The Prayer of Jonah" Syriac Heading S includes a heading to this section.

2:8 Those who revere vain illusions Theological Polemic: Jonah's Reliance on Faith over Works

• →Luther Lect. Jon. "With this verse Jonah rebukes the foolish work-righteous and hypocrites, who do not rely solely on God’s grace but on their own works. He rebukes the same people because they do not know what faith is, because they have never been in distress where they might have learned how beneficial faith is and how ineffective good works are, and because they do not change but they depreciate grace and appreciate their own doing. Jonah declares that this is vanity."

2:1–9 From the Prayer of Jonah to the Psalter

Medieval Illumination

Jonah becomes a model for praying in distress.

2:10 TYPOLOGY Elijah and Elisha as Types of Jonah See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f.

5–8 The Fast: Animals Participating in Religious Activity?

A Parallel Decree for Fasting

The king’s decree for all humans and animals to fast is analogous to the Judeans’ corporate fast in the face of the Babylonian/Assyrian invasion (Jdt 4:9–11). There, the high priest Joakim declares that all the people—including the aliens in their midst, their hired laborers, their slaves, and their cattle—should don sackcloth and ashes and fast. 

Creatures Praising God

The animals’ fasting and repentance might be a playful echo of the psalmist’s descriptions of praise that all of creation offer to God (cf. Ps 19; 29; 96:11–13; 98:7–9; 148; 150; G-Dn 3:57–90). In any case, as the closing rhetorical question of the book makes clear, the well-being of the animals, not just the human inhabitants of Nineveh, is important to God. 

8c,9a turn Theological Play on Words

• If Nineveh turns/repents (šwb) from their violence (v. 8),
• God may turn/relent (šwb) from punishing them (v. 9).

This play on words captures an important aspect of the divine-human relationship as described throughout Scripture: God and man mirror one another (cf. Zec 1:3; Mal 3:7; Jas 4:8; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:8c,9a). In Christian theology, this relationship is later encompassed by the concept of co-operative (or synergistic) grace. 

2:4b,7b your holy Temple Same Phrase In vv. 4b and 7b the same phrase appears (’el hékal qodšekā), linking the two verses. What is impossible for vision, is possible through prophetic insight. See the Sitz im Leben in Literary Genre Jon 2:1–9.

2:1–9 Myth and Mythemes in Jonah's Psalm Numerous mythic fragments (mythemes) from ancient Canaan and Mesopotamia appear throughout Scripture. Jonah’s thanksgiving prayer offers a prime example (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:1–9).

• Repeated references to the sea (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a) and the waters recall related personified nature deities from ancient cultures.

• References to mountain crevasses and the bars of the earth (i.e., the nether world; cf. Vocabulary Jon 2:6ab), as well as Jonah’s drowning and strangulation, indirectly invoke the deity Death (Ancient Texts Jon 2:6a).

2:10 vomited Possible Connotation in S: Giving Birth The Syriac verb plṭ can generally be glossed as "eject" or "escape" in the pe‘al stem.  Depending on the context, it can have more specific meanings such as "vomit," "spit out," or even "to be removed from an enclosed space." Perhaps related to this last possible meaning of the verb, there are instances where plṭ is used figuratively for the act of giving birth. See, for example,

• →bar Hebraeus Laugh. St. 105.19: “My brother and I are twins and were removed (or ‘escaped’) from the womb at the same time.”

Although the translator of S may not have intended to evoke this figurative connotation of plṭ, it is this very term—along with m‘ayyā in Jon 1:17–2:1—that inspired a particular exegetical thread among the Syriac Fathers (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:17b–2:1).

8abc let sackcloths cover + call out + turn — The Septuagint Translator’s Construal of Verbs

The Differences between M and G

• The three jussives in M (wᵉyitkassû, wᵉyiqrᵉ’û, wᵉyāšūbû) are all rendered with aorists (perieballonto, aneboêsan, apestrepsan) in G. The translator may have interpreted the Hebrew verbs as waw-consecutives.

• legontes (“saying”) is a plus in G. This appears to smooth out the translation by introducing the question following in v. 9 and attributing it explicitly to the Ninevites.

Significance

• In M the edict of the king and his nobles continues through vv. 8–9.

• In G the king’s proclamation of the edict ends in v. 7; v. 8 returns to narrate the report of the narrator.

• Thus, in M the repentance of the people of Nineveh is only explicitly mentioned once (Jon 3:5). The compliant response of the Ninevites is implied by the text of Jon 3:10, but the reader must fill in this gap in the narrative.

• In G, however, the repentance of the Ninevites is emphasized since it is depicted twice, once in Jon 3:5 and again in Jon 3:8. Whereas the people’s initial repentance in v. 5 is somewhat spontaneous, in v. 8 it is a direct response to the edict of the king and his nobles.

• Many of the Church Fathers note this response and hold up the example of the Ninevites as examples of repentance (Christian Tradition Jon 3:5–10). 

5,7; 4:11 LANGUAGE Ancient Pairing: Humans and Animals Two terms are used to designate the Ninevites:

• ’îš (’anšé nînewê, Jon 3:5),
• hā’ādām, when animals are mentioned (Jon 3:7; 4:11).

This language is reminiscent of that used to describe humans and animals in Gn 1–3. The echo may recall the reader to the themes of creation, restoration, and God’s providential care for his creatures (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1).

3a got up Jonah, a Type of Christ's Resurrection

• →Gloss. ord. "Allegorically, Christ is rightly said to have risen after hell, and to preach when he sends the apostles to baptize people in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit; this is the journey of three days. But this sacrament of human salvation is a journey of one day—that is, it is completed by the confession of the one God. With Jonah—that is, Christ—preaching among the apostles, [it is] Christ who said, 'I am with you even to the end of the age'" (Mt 28:20; cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1: Jonah's passion, like Christ's, begins on a Thursday and ends three days later).

2b according to the previous proclamation that I spoke to you (G) God’s Message Is Exactly the Same as in Jon 1:2

Emphasis on the Same Message in G

Two features of G emphasize that God’s message is the same as that which Jonah had received earlier (cf. Jon 1:2).

• The prepositions kata and emprosthen are pluses compared to the text of M, which is supported by S (dᵉ’āmer ’nā lāk).

• There is shift in verbal aspect (the participle is rendered with an aorist).

• This is further amplified in mss. 87, 91, and 490, which attest the perfect lelalêka (“I had told”; cf. →Ziegler 1984 ad loc.).

Relating G to M

• dōbēr: M | G: elalêsa—it is entirely possible that the consonants dbr were construed as a qal perfect, thus explaining the aorist verb in G.

• G: kata—it is possible that the Vorlage of M contained something like kzwt (“according to”; cf. Textual Criticism Jon 3:2b), though this is uncertain. It is equally possible that the translator decided to add it for clarification.

• G: emprosthen—it seems most likely that the translator added the preposition emprosthen for emphasis or clarification.

5b,7a their great ones + his great ones — Do the Two Groups Correspond?

• M: miggᵉdôlām and ûgᵉdōlâw (lit. “their great ones” and “his great ones”)—the repetition of the term implies that there is some overlap in the two groups.
• G: megalou autôn and tôn megistanôn autou (lit. “their great ones” and “his grandees”)—there is not a direct repetition of the term (i.e., tôn megalôn autou), though the similarity of the terms used by the translator invites a similar understanding.
• V: maiore and principum eius (“greater” and “his princes”)—the difference in terms potentially introduces a distinction between the two groups; though the implied reader might make a conceptual link between the groups, there is no textual link inviting the connection as in M and S (and G to a lesser extent).
• S: rôrbᵉnayhôn and rôrbᵉnaw (“their great ones” and “his great ones”)—the identical terms employed by S strengthens the invitation already present in M to associate the great ones from v. 5 with the nobles of v. 7; in fact, it is possible to read them as coterminous groups of people in S.

In M and S there is a strong implication that at least some of “the great” (people) of Nineveh who initially spontaneously repented in v. 5 are also those who are involved in the official proclamation of the fast in v. 7. This connection, at least on a textual level, is somewhat weakened in G and is completely removed in V.

1:1; 3:1 the word of Yhwh was to Semantics The phrase wayhî + dᵉbar-YHWH + ’el is usually rendered by the verb of movement "the word of YHWH came to…" For instance,

• “Now the word of the LORD came unto Jonah” (KJV);
• “Now the word of the Lord came to Jonas” (DRV);
• “Now the word of the Lord came to Jonas” (Brenton).

Nevertheless, all ancient versions keep in their translations some form of the verb “to be,” or “to become.” This grammatical construction led to our interpreting "the word of YHWH" as an active subject (hypostatization). Others argue that this formula simply means that communication has occurred. Therefore, this expression is as minimally descriptive as possible (see Literary Genre Jon 1:1).

1:2–3:8 Leitwort "Call Out": Jonah as a Story about "Calling" The verb qr’, “to call, to cry out,” occurs eight times within the story.

Main Theme?

"Calling," with all its polysemous qualities (speaking in the name of God—proclamation—and speaking to God—prayer), is a significant theme of the story.

Structural Repetition

Its occurrences reveal the basic structure of the narrative.

• The first divine mandate (Jon 1:2) is that Jonah “calls out against Nineveh.” Since he himself is disobedient to this divine call, the order is echoed by the sailors (Jon 1:6): “Get up! Call out!” When Jonah still does not follow this order of calling, it is the sailors who “called out” to YHWH (Jon 1:14).
• It is only in the innards of the fish that Jonah follows their example and calls out to YHWH (Jon 2:2 [V-2:3]).
• After that turning point, God repeats his first order (Jon 3:2), and Jonah accomplishes his mission (Jon 3:4). As a result, the people of Nineveh “called for a fast” (Jon 3:5) and their own king orders them to “call out” to YHWH (Jon 3:8).

1:2; 3:2b call out + call to — Common Imperative Directed to the Prophets The verb qr’  is one of the most often repeated keywords (see also Jon 1:6,14; 2:2; 3:2,4–5,8; cf. Literary Devices Jon 1:2).

This verb is often used as a technical term that instructs the prophet as to what he is to say or do; e.g., 1Kgs 13:32; Is 40:2,6; 58:1; Jer 3:12; 7:2; 11:6; 19:2; Zec 1:14,17; Jl 3:9 (M-4:9). 

1:4–2:10 TYPOLOGY Jonah and Noah The two best known nautically themed stories of the OT exhibit structural and thematic similarities.

Plot

• God sees the wickedness (rā‘â) of human beings: the evil’s scope is more universal in Genesis (Gn 6:5; Jon 1:2).

• Forty days: the duration of the storm (Gn 7:17) and the grace period until God’s judgment (Jon 3:4).

• Sacrifice: Noah, the sailors (Jon 1:16), and Jonah (Jon 2:9) offer sacrifices in response to God’s salvation from the waters (Gn 8:20–21).

Characters and Actors

• Animals: God’s concern for animals is ambiguous in Genesis, for, on the one hand, he saves the animals from the flood, but, on the other hand, he then gives them to Noah and his descendants to eat (Gn 7:2–3). His solicitude for animals in Jonah seems clearer (Jon 4:11). Incidentally, the presence of animals in these two stories may account for why they are the two most popular stories for biblical children’s literature (cf. →Introduction §3.13).

• Large populations: Noah’s story emphasizes the multitude of people on the earth (Gn 6:1), while Jonah’s notes the immensity of Nineveh’s population (Jon 1:2; 4:11).

• Dove: Noah releases a dove to check whether the floodwaters have receded (Gn 8:8), and Jonah’s name means “dove” (Jon 1:1).

Motifs

• Power over creation: divinely ordained storms prevail over the face of the earth (mountains, etc.; cf. Gn 7:19) and threaten Jonah’s ship (Jon 1:4).

• Salvation from water: God rescues our two protagonists from the waters of chaos by commanding Noah to build an ark (Gn 6:14) and the sea-monster to swallow Jonah (Jon 1:17).

• Sin and Forgiveness: depending on how one interprets Gn 6:3, God either gives humanity 120 years to repent—during which time, it is said, Noah exhorts repentance—or he simply chooses Noah and his family alone to be saved. At any rate, no one else has repented and joined Noah by the time the storms begin. Apart from the ark, all of humanity and animal life is destroyed in the flood (Gn 7:21–23). In the Book of Jonah, on the other hand, God’s call to conversion is wildly successful (Jon 3:10). Why God acts differently is unambiguous if one accepts the traditional interpretation that Noah spent 120 years calling for repentance. The Ninevites repented and found mercy, whereas the men of Noah’s time failed to repent. If, however, God does not call for repentance through Noah, we can wonder why the same offer of mercy is not made in the story of Noah.

1:9b,13a; 2:10 dry land vs. "earth, country": Scriptural Connotations

• ’ereṣ is the more common Hebrew term and has already occurred in the story (Jon 1:8).
• yabbāšâ (used again in Jon 1:13 and Jon 2:10 [M-2:11]) is etymologically related to the root ybš (“to be dry”); it occurs in contrast to the “sea.”

It also stresses Yhwh’s ability to separate the waters to reveal dry land in times of great need (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10).

1:17b–2:1 innards Multivalence: Digestion and Reproduction

Literal Sense

The term mē‘îm occurs only in the plural. Since knowledge of physiology was limited in Antiquity, it served as a nonspecific anatomical reference, comparable to viscera in Latin or “guts” in English (cf. 2Sm 20:10; 2Chr 21:18–19). More specifically, the mē‘îm designate the organs involved in digestion, reproduction, and gestation.

• In Jb 20:14 it appears to refer to the digestive system.
• Elsewhere it refers to the loins (e.g., Is 16:11); hence the various idioms, such as the “issue of one’s mē‘îm,” which denotes one’s paternity (Gn 15:4; 2Sm 7:12; 2Chr 32:21).
• It also refers to female reproductive organs, especially the womb (e.g., Gn 25:23; Ru 1:11).

Figurative Use

Mē‘îm can denote:

• strong, visceral emotions: e.g., “boiling innards” in Jb 30:27.
• one’s inmost being, his will, and intellect: Ps 40:8 (M-40:9).

The primary sense of the term as it appears in Jon 1:17b–2:1 appears to be “stomach,” but the multivalence of the term is something reflected in both ancient translations and the exegesis of some Church Fathers (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:17b–2:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10).

1:17; 2:1,10 fish He-Fish or She-Fish? Shift in Gender Whereas in Jon 1:17a the Lord appoints a dāg, “fish” in masculine form, one reads in Jon 2:1 that Jonah prays from the innards of a dāgâ, “fish” in feminine form. In Jon 2:10, however, the creature is again called a dāg.

The text’s ambiguity inspired a number of Jewish explanations (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17; 2:1,10) and may have influenced certain translation choices in Jerome’s Vulgate (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1).

1:17–2:1; 2:10 fish : M | G: a sea-monster The Greek kêtos does not closely correspond to M's dāg; in Greek the term ichthus ("fish") is the semantic counterpart of dāg. This translation decision is both an homage to Greek culture and a product of ancient exegesis that creates a link between Jon 1:17 (M-2:1) and other biblical texts.

Kêtos in Greek Literature

• See Ancient Texts Jon 1:17–2:1.

Kêtos in the Septuagint

The term kêtos “sea-monster” has cosmological associations in G.

• It occurs in the description of the fifth day of creation in Gn 1:21. The first sea-creatures are the “great tannînim" (= kêtê).

• In Jb 3:8, the same term translates Hebrew liwyātān, and in Jb 9:13; 26:12 , it translates rāhab (see also Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a).

• In Sir 43:25 the great sea-monsters are the proof of the Creator’s might.

• In the Song of the Three Youths the kêtê praise and bless the Lord (G-Dn 3:79).

1:17b–2:1 innards Transforming mē‘îm  The Hebrew term “innards” can denote both the stomach (and digestion) and the womb (and reproduction; Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1); hence, its contents can either be destroyed or confected. Figuratively, they are a site of transformation.

• Upon entering, the content is broken down and absorbed: this is usually food, but also includes the bitter scroll which Ezekiel consumes in Ez 3:3.
• “Exiting the innards” is an idiomatic phrase for birth or origin (cf. 2Chr 32:21; Is 48:19). Isaiah hears God’s call, as it were, from within his mother’s mē‘îm (Is 49:1). Jonah has a figurative “rebirth” when he accepts his vocation and is expelled from the great fish.

By metonymy mē‘îm refers to the seat of such emotions as love (Sg 5:4), compassion, and anguish (Jb 30:27; Jer 4:19; Lam 1:20). In the context of Jonah, this last connotation is significant: in parallel with the root rḥm, mē‘îm is associated with compassion and mercy (cf. Is 16:11; 63:15; Jer 31:20).

Jonah finds himself in the mē‘îm: when he departs, he will be, in a way, “the son of a fish.” Those mē‘îm, which could have destroyed him, let him live.

2:1–9 The Fish as Womb, Tomb, Temple, or Prison? Yes, All of These As the progress of the narrative comes to a stop, readers are privileged to hear Jonah’s psalmic prayer from within the great fish. In the course of his prayer, we see that he has continued his descent; whereas he initially descended to Joppa and then descended into the recesses of the ship to flee from God, he now describes how he descended into the depths as far as the primordial features of the world that no mortal has seen. This prayer in the fish is the culmination of his experience, as he recollects sinking to the depths and then his rescue by God. Jonah says that he went to the roots of the mountains, with the bars closed upon him forever; it is at this point that God brings him up from the pit and rescues him (Jon 2:6). Does this prayer reflect the knowledge and fear of God that Jonah professed in the first chapter—that the God who controls the sea and the dry land can save him? The fish is an instrument of Jonah’s salvation, a supreme demonstration of mercy at the most critical moment. In many ways, the commentary tradition has argued that the fish gave Jonah a veritable tour of the deep (Literary Devices Jon 1:3b,5d; 2:6a).

The Fish

With a subtle change in grammatical gender, the great fish transforms from a he-fish into a she-fish (Vocabulary Jon 2:2c), a fact that reinforces its fantastical qualities. Though this mythopoeic fish has played a large role in two short verses (Jon 1:17–2:1), it immediately recedes into the background, becoming a liminal stage on which Jonah prays (Jon 2:2–9). Within the history of Jewish reception, the androgynous fish (Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17; 2:1,10) is eventually listed among the entities that were with God when he created the world (→Protoctist Entities: What Was with God at the Creation?; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a). In the Christian tradition, on the other hand, some patristic authors think that Jonah’s time in the fish is, in fact, a period of prophetic gestation; his time in the fish prepares him to obey God’s commission (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; Comparison of Versions Jon 2:1; Comparison of Versions Jon 2:2b).

Jonah

At least in terms of his external behavior, Jonah demonstrates a change. Though he complies with neither directive to call out (qr’: Jon 1:2,6), here, in the belly of the great fish, in the depths of the sea, he finally does call out (qr’; Literary Devices Jon 1:2–3:8). While this difference in behavior may also signal a change within Jonah, it is important to observe that his prayer is self-interested. Further, the words of the prayer, especially Jon 2:5–7, reveal something the reader has not yet encountered in the story: Jonah describes how he feels.

The Prayer

Like many of the psalms, we are given the context for Jonah’s prayer: he prays from the belly of the she-fish. As noted above, the prayer gives the reader a glimpse of Jonah’s inner-emotional state, and for many within the history of interpretation, its repentant tone redeems him as a prophet. Further, this prayer serves as a model within the Christian tradition; like Jonah, we are to pray in the midst of distress for help and salvation from God. The prayer itself is comprised of a patchwork of psalmodic language (Textual Criticism Jon 2:9a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:1–9), including references to cult, particularly the Temple and thanksgiving sacrifices. Thus it has found a home in liturgy (Liturgies Jon 2:1–9). With references to mythical elements, such as the roots of the mountains and Sheol, some have viewed the prayer as the description of a cosmological journey through the depths and to the beginnings of creation.

Although it is likely that the prayer is secondary to the story, we read Jonah as a unified text regardless of its historical development (Literary Genre Jon 2:1–9).

2:6c my life : M | Potential Plus in 4QXII^g: the life of my soul

• 4QXII^g (4Q82 f85) clearly reads "my soul" (npšy).

It is possible to reconstruct ḥyy (“my life”) in the lacunae between frs. 82, 84, and 85, all of which contain ink traces that are commensurate with such a reconstruction. The phrase npšy ḥyy can be translated as “the life of my soul” (→DJD XV, 310–311).

2:9a let me sacrifice : M | 4QXII^g: I will sacrifice The cohortative ’ăšallēmâ is found in M, while the pi‘el yiqtol ’ăšallēm occurs in 4QXII^g (4Q82 fr. 78ii+82-87:9; →DJD XV, 310).

Usage

This occurrence in 4QXII^g accords well with its usage in the Book of Psalms in M.

• The same form ’ăšallēm occurs five times (Ps 22:25 [M-22:26]; Ps 56:12 [M-56:13]; Ps 66:13; 116:14,18), always in contexts where vows are paid to the Lord God by the speaker. Furthermore, it is found once in Ps^b (4Q84 fr. 28i:15; →DJD XVI, 44), which corresponds to M-Ps 116:18.
• In contrast, there are two other instances of the cohortative ’ăšall^emâ in M (Ps 41:10 [M-41:11]; Prv 20:22): both occur in contexts where the speaker desires to repay evil.

Significance

• Though it is possible that the difference between M and 4QXII^g is simply a matter of a copyist’s error, it is also possible that the change was intended to bring this prayer into closer alignment with the Psalms.
• Further, the future form of the verb (“I will sacrifice”) can convey greater certitude compared to the cohortative (“let me sacrifice”); in this case, the speaker is not simply entreating God to enable him to pay vows, but rather affirming with conviction that he will fulfill his vows.

2:2c the belly of Sheol Semantic Field of "Belly" Beṭen means “belly.” Like English, beṭen has several literal and figurative senses:

• physical (Sg 7:2 [M-7:3]);
• physiological (digestion: Ez 3:3; procreation: Gn 25:23–24);
• psychological, especially as the seat of the emotions (cf. the synonymous “innards” in Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1).

Sheol is often personified as having a hearty appetite.

• It opens wide its mouth (Is 5:14) to swallow (Prv 1:12),
• but it is not sated (Hb 2:5).

While the “beṭen of Sheol” is only found here, it is in keeping with this imagery, and so “belly” seems preferable to “womb” (see also Jewish Tradition Jon 2:2c).

2:3a river Possible Contextual Meanings Since nāhār most often means “river,” one wonders why it is mentioned in parallel with the “seas.”

• The word nāhār can denote “current”: see Is 44:27, where the Lord says to the deep (ṣûlâ) “I will dry up your currents (nahărōtayk).” See likewise Ps 24:2; 89:25; Hb 3:8, which are poetic texts that seem to associate nāhār with the sea (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10). 
• It could also be a proper name: the figure of Yam-Nahar (the sea-river god) is found in Ugaritic literature, where the cognate term is clearly applied to the sea. A translation that alludes to this figure might also be possible: “And Nahar kept going around me” (Ancient Texts Jon 2:3a).

2:5a [the] deep Cosmological Term Jonah descends into tᵉhôm (G: abussos), the primordial depths from which Creation is brought forth (Gn 1:2; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a). The use of this term, which is associated with transcendent space-time realities, fosters later interpretations of Jonah’s cosmological tour under the earth, during which he passes through the foundations of the cosmos (Ancient Cultures Jon 2:1–9).

2:8 vain illusions A Metaphorical Expression

An Emphatic Expression of Nothingness

• The Hebrew phrase hablé šāw’ can be translated literally as “empty vapor,” and figuratively as “empty vanity” or “empty illusion” (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

Hebel: A Tricky Term in Hebrew

On its own, the term hebel means “vapor” or “breath,” though this basic meaning is not always, or even often, the one that is found in the Hebrew Bible. Thus, lexicons often gloss hebel as “vanity.”

• It can denote the transitory nature of human life: Jb 7:16; Ps 62:10; 144:4.

• It is also found in a few places in prophetic literature in contexts where idolatry is condemned: Is 57:13; Jer 10:3,15; 51:18, where it may underscore the idols' non-existence (hbl) and deceitfulness (šw’ ).

• It is perhaps best known as the Leitwort of Ecclesiastes—occurring some 30 times—where it is normally translated as “vanity.”

2:8 their fidelity Ḥesed: A Notoriously Difficult Term The word ḥesed—often translated as eleos in Greek and “loving-kindness” in English—is polysemous; it denotes, for example, God’s mercy and fidelity, as well as human kindness and loyalty. In some contexts, it accords with the theological term “grace.” Though much has been written on the word, it remains difficult to map the semantic range in a systematic and consistent manner. See  →Clines 1993-2011; →TLOT; →HALOT, s.v. ḥesed.

• In the context of Jon 2:8, it seems to be used in its religious sense: it denotes the fidelity that human beings are to show to God (piety) in return for God’s faithfulness and grace (mercy).
• The multivalence of the term had led to some divergent readings in the versions (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:8).

2:4b Nevertheless Contextual Meaning of the Adverb Generally, ’ak expresses affirmation. Hence it can be rendered:

• “surely,”
• “indeed.”

Depending on the context, however, it can express restriction, in which case it should be translated:

• “yet,”
• “nevertheless.”

2:8 vain illusions Superlative or Not The Hebrew phrase hablé šāw’ is a construct chain of two synonyms:

• It usually denotes a superlative (→Joüon and Muraoka 2008, §141.m). Literally meaning “nothingnesses of emptiness” or “the nought of nought,” the expression means to convey “the most nought” or “the ultimate nothingness”; cf. such similar expressions as “King of Kings” and “Holy of Holies.”
• Likewise hablé šāw conveys two similar but different aspects of “illusion,” namely, non-existence (hbl) and deceitfulness (šw’; Vocabulary Jon 2:8; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

2:8 forsake Epistemic Modality of Yiqtol Though its form is yiqtol, ya‘ăzōbû here should not be understood as describing future, speculative, or unreal action; rather, it describes a general truth, one that is always the case. The act is certain and obvious; compare similar usage in sayings, precepts, and proverbs (e.g., Prv 10:1). Perhaps the most famous example of this kind of yiqtol is the translation of the divine name at G-Ex 3:14: egô eimi ho ôn “I am he who is.” 

2:1–9 Cosmological Background of Jonah's Prayer It is important to keep →General Israelite Cosmology in mind when reading the Book of Jonah, especially Jon 2, since its language is undoubtedly infused with these cosmological concepts.

• In his prayer, Jonah says that he has been taken down into the furthest depths of the sea, enveloped by its waters, and enclosed by the bars of the earth.
• Thus, he is not describing the physical seabed just beyond the port of Jaffa; rather he is speaking of a region beneath the earth (and sea) where one finds the primordial waters of chaos (cf. Gn 1:2).
• In addition, his prayer associates the location of these cosmological waters with Sheol, the realm of the dead. Such a cosmological worldview has much in common with that of Jb 38:16–18; in these poetic lines, the sea, the abyss, and the gates of death are placed in parallel with one another, thus creating a strong link between the underworld and the primordial waters.
• Hence we can surmise that Jonah was, in fact, given a privileged glimpse of the deep structure of the cosmos, the full knowledge of which belongs to God alone (cf. Jb 38:4–18; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10). This tour, however, is portentous, for Jonah does not know if he will reemerge.

See likewise Vocabulary Jon 2:6ab; Vocabulary Jon 2:6c; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a; Jewish Tradition Jon 2:2c.

2:5b seaweed : M | G: fissures of mountains | S: bottom of the sea | V: sea The Hebrew sûp (usually “seaweed” or “reeds”) is here used to denote aquatic flora (Vocabulary Jon 2:5b). It is interesting that none of the versions translate sûp accurately, suggesting that the use of sûp to refer to seaweed was not well known.

The Furthest Abyss: A Misreading by G

• G probably read sûp as sôp (“end”) and thus translated it as eschatê, an adjective that modifies abussos: hence, “the fissures.”

• The translator then merged the end of v. 5b with the beginning of the next verse (Jon 2:6a: lᵉqiṣbé hārîm), resulting in “into the fissures of mountains my head went down.”

S: A Misreading That Is Closer than G

• S seems also to have misread M as sôp in v. 5b since it translates with the term ’št’ (“lowest part,” “bottom”). S did not misconstrue the lines by associating sôp with the preceding material in v. 5a and merging the rest of v. 5b with v. 6a.
• Yet, it is interesting that the translator did not choose the cognate term swp (“end,” “furthest part”). Instead, S opts for the specificity provided by ’št’; the translator wanted to make clear that the furthest part of the sea under consideration is its bottom (as opposed to a distant shore).
• S repeats the same term at the beginning of v. 6 in its rendering of “the roots (qiṣbé) of the mountains” as “lowest parts of the mountains.” This translation decision is typical of S, which often gravitates toward repetitive parallelism (→van Peursen 2007, 62–67).

V: A Rare Misreading

• V, which reads pelagus operuit caput meum, is difficult to relate to the Hebrew sûp. Jerome obviously did not read swp as sûp, but it is not clear why he rendered swp as pelagus (“the sea”). This is perhaps why he is silent on this line in his commentary (see →Jerome Comm. Jon.).

2:6b behind me : M | G: eternal barriers (Greek Allusion to Ancient Magic?)

• G: katochoi aiônioi.

In addition to denoting anything that “binds” or “inhibits,” the substantivized adjective katochos (from the verb katechô) may mean “tombstone” and even a binding or inhibiting spell (cf. the similarly used katadesmoi and Latin defixiones).

2:7a was growing weak  G vs. V and S: Physical vs. Emotional Affliction

• bᵉhit‘aṭṭēp: M | G: ekleipein (“was departing”)—the translation of G features a temporal construction consisting of the preposition en + the infinitive, rather than a middle or passive form.
• V: angustiaretur (“was distressed”) is a passive subjunctive imperfect.

• S: ’tṭrpt (“he was overwhelmed” or “he was exhausted”), the itpa‘al of ṭrp can have both a physical and emotional nuance. This is useful to note, particularly in the interpretation of S-Jon 4:8 (Comparison of Versions Jon 4:8b).

Whereas G develops the sense that the speaker was near physical death, both V and S denote an emotional, or spiritual, anguish. This may be because G interpreted M’s npš as “life,” while V and S understood it as “inner-spirit” or “soul.”

2:8 their fidelity : M | G: their mercy | V: his mercy | S: your mercy

The Differences

M’s ḥasdām (“their fidelity/loyalty”) is a multivalent term that proved to be somewhat difficult for the translators in this context (Vocabulary Jon 2:8).

• G: eleos autôn (“their mercy”) is unclear: in the context of the poem, “their mercy” would seem to refer to the mercy of God that the people who guard vanities and lies have forsaken. Yet, in the wider context of the Book of Jonah, it could refer to the sailors who forsook mercy by throwing Jonah overboard.
• V: misericordiam suam (“his mercy”), although there is no referent for the possessive pronoun “his,” the mercy of God is clearly in view.
• S: mrḥmnwt’ (“your mercy”), by using the 2^nd person singular masculine suffix, S turns the statement into direct address, and thus the phrase refers to God’s mercy.

A Possible Explanation of the Difficulty

• In M, it is clear that the ḥesed belongs to those who revere vain illusions (subjective genitive); by worshipping idols, they have abandoned their fidelity to God and his covenant.
• Yet, it appears that the translators did not understand ḥesed as a term that can refer to both God’s faithful, gracious actions towards humans (“mercy”) and the fidelity that humans ought to show to God in return (“piety”). Thus, the phrase, “their ḥesed,” referring to the idolators, did not make sense to them (cf. Ancient Texts Hos 1:6b; Comparison of Versions Hos 2:19b).
• In the case of G, it is likely that eleos (“compassion”) had become something of a standard translation for ḥesed.

2:9b Salvation : M | S: recompense  S: pwr‘n’ (“recompense”) has both positive and negative connotations. Much closer to the Hebrew yᵉšû‘ātâ would be pwrqn’ (“salvation”).

• Because a scribal error (the letter ‘ayin mistakenly written in place of the qop) does not seem to be very probable, it is likely a conscious translation decision.

2:1–9

Thanksgiving Prayers

Thanksgiving psalms seem to have been inserted in other narratives of the Old Testament, usually after overcoming a providential trial or ordeal.

• The Prayer of Hannah (1Sm 2:1–10).
• David’s Psalm of praise (2Sm 22).
• Hezekiah’s prayer (Is 38:9–20).
• Azariah’s thanksgiving psalm (G-Dn 3).
• The prayers of Mordecai and Esther (G-Est 4:17–19).

Psalmodic Language in Jonah's Prayer

Jonah’s prayer employs many themes, words, and phrases from the psalms.

• Jon 2:2 // Ps 120:1 “In my distress I cry to Yhwh, that he may answer me.”

• Jon 2:3 // Ps 42:7 “Deep calls to deep at the thunder of thy cataracts; all thy waves and thy billows have gone over me”; Ps 18:4–5 “The cords of death encompassed me, the torrents of perdition assailed me; the cords of Sheol entangled me, the snares of death confronted me.”

• Jon 2:4 // Ps 31:22 “I had said in my alarm, ‘I am driven far from thy sight.’ But thou didst hear my supplications, when I cried to thee for help.”

• Jon 2:5 // Ps 69:1–2 “Save me, O God! For the waters have come up to my neck. I sink in deep mire, where there is no foothold; I have come into deep waters, and the flood sweeps over me.”

• Jon 2:6 // Ps 30:3 “O Lord, thou hast brought up my soul from Sheol, restored me to life from among those gone down to the Pit.”

• Jon 2:7 // Ps 18:6-7 “In my distress I called upon the Lord; to my God I cried for help. From his Temple he heard my voice, and my cry to him reached his ears.”

• Jon 2:8 // Ps 31:6 “Thou hatest those who pay regard to vain idols; but I trust in the Lord.”

• Jon 2:9 // Ps 3:8 “Deliverance belongs to Yhwh; thy blessing be upon thy people!”; Ps 116:17–18 “I will offer to thee the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call on the name of Yhwh. I will pay my vows to Yhwh in the presence of all his people.”

2:3a,5a depths + [the] deep — Waters of Chaos and of Creation Jonah’s immersion into the depths (mᵉṣûlâ) in v. 3 and the deep (tᵉhôm; G: abussos) in v. 5 recalls several instances throughout the Bible where water (mayim) is a cosmological force of chaos and creation (→van der Toorn, Becking, and van der Horst 1995, 737). For biblical authors, God maintains the balance between water’s chaotic and creative aspects.

Chaos

• Water is associated with the sea-god Yam, the river-god Nahar, and the primordial dragon of chaos—identified variously as Tiamat, Leviathan, and Rehab—who lives in the sea (Jb 3:8; 41:1; Ps 104:26; Is 51:9–10). This divine struggle to maintain power over the forces of water is known broadly as the Chaoskampf (chaos-struggle) motif. This motif runs throughout ancient Near Eastern texts, including the Bible (cf. →Miller 2018).

• The creation account in Gn 1 indirectly concerns this motif, while passages like Hb 3:8 and Ps 104:1–14 directly refer to Yhwh’s battle with the sea (Yam) and river (Nahar). Biblical authors frequently cite the Exodus as such a battle (Ps 77:17–21; 106:9; 107:23–24; Is 44:27; 63:11–12; Hb 3:10).

• In the NT, the Chaoskampf motif is recapitulated in the story of Jesus walking on the water: as God, he victoriously tramples the head of the primordial sea-dragon (Mt 14:22–33). The revelation of the New Heaven and New Earth, when John reports that “the sea is no more” (Rv 21:1), is the culmination of this motif. This only spells the end of the chaotic aspect of water, for the river of life continues to flow forth from the throne of God (Rv 22:1–2).

• The deep waters are sometimes associated with Sheol (Jb 7:9; Ps 24:7–10; 88:6), as well as near-death experiences. In Jonah—as in Dt 32:39; 1Sm 2:6; 2Kgs 5:7—Yhwh is the only one who has the power to take and give life. Likewise, only he has power over the waters. Thus both droughts (1Kgs 17:1; Jer 14:1–6; Hg 1:10–11) and floods (Gn 5–9) are means of divine punishment.

Creation

• Water is not only destructive, however; it is life-giving too. Oftentimes these two aspects are juxtaposed. The waters that cover the face of the earth in Gn 1 are the chaotic cosmic depths (tᵉhôm) that Yhwh restrains and with which he creates. Yhwh separates the waters: rain nourishes plants and animals, while the sea below teems with life.
• Likewise, Eden, God’s garden, is situated at the confluence of four great rivers. Throughout the OT, the water is repeatedly employed as a metaphor of God’s provision, blessing, and salvation (Ex 17:4–5; Is 49:10; 55:10; Jer 17:13; Zec 14:8–9). In the NT, Jesus is the incarnation of living water (Jn 4:14; 7:37–38).
• Immersion into water builds on the Jewish practice of ritual bathing and symbolizes one’s descent (confession and death) and reemergence (salvation, Mt 28:19–20; Mk 16:15–16; Jn 3:3–7).

A Tenuous Boundary

• No clear demarcation of water’s simultaneously destructive and creative powers can be made. Very often, one sees both attributes at play in a single passage. This is seen in the Exodus in which Israel is saved, while Egypt’s army is wiped out by the sea. Ultimately, Yhwh is the one who wields power over all water, able to put it to use for whatever means he desires. Jonah’s prayer is both a recognition of this and a proclamation of thanksgiving that mirrors the language of the Psalmist who is rescued by Yhwh from “the depths of the earth” (tᵉhōmôt hā’āreṣ, Ps 71:20).

God's Presence Is Unbounded

• While Jonah is himself bounded by bars, seaweed, and the great fish itself, Jonah's prayer invokes the imagery of Ps 139; there the psalmist considers that one cannot escape God's presence, even if one could descend to the deepest places.

2:8 vain illusions Prophetic Language

• The Hebrew expression hablé šāw’ (Vocabulary Jon 2:8) appears only twice in M: here and in Ps 31:6. The latter is a thanksgiving psalm in which the speaker criticizes those who adhere to or worship the hablé šāw’, noting that the Lord hates them.
• In both cases, it is a direct object of a plural participle based on the verb šmr (qal in Ps 31:6; pi‘el in Jon 2:8 [M-2:9]). In Ps 31:6 these worshippers are castigated by the psalmist (M) or by God (G, S); they likewise serve as a foil to the psalmist who trusts (bṭḥ) in Yhwh (Literary Devices Jon 2:8).

2:2ff,7 Use in Lectionary →RML: Monday, Week 27 in Year I – Responsorial Canticle.

2:2b answered me God Is Present in the Sea-Monster's Belly

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 2:3 "'I,’ says Jonah, ‘who previously thought that God appears to prophets only in Jerusalem, found him present even in the sea-monster’s belly. And having prayed to him, I was delivered by his love of humanity.'" 

2:1–9 Christian Application of Jonah's Prayer In an album whose title obviously turns Jonah into a type of the human condition, American blues singer and guitarist Kelly Joe Phelps mixes country, blues, and gospel, offering an emotional song that re-interprets the themes of Jonah’s prayer within the context of a sinful yet repentant Christian (cf. allegories of Jonah’s flight in Christian Tradition Jon 1:3a). 

• Kelly Joe Phelps, Brother Sinner & the Whale (2012), Track 4: “Pilgrim’s Reach→”: “I’m afraid I’ve gone the wrong way again, / Walking away from Calvary and right back into sin, / Them ol’ demons, no, they don’t like me at all, / They love to beat my heart to hell, everytime I fall. / Why do I choose to suffer when I can live with God? / Lone dark valley, all my peace has gone, / Pray to Heaven, have mercy on me. / Hold my knees on the ground, Lord, help my faith, / My disbelief is killing me, I surely need Your grace, / I’ll open up the word and let You lead me on Your way, / Pray my eyes and ears are open, and I will hear You say. / ‘You are my sons and daughters, / I gave my own to buy your crown, / All of Heaven is buried in your heart, / Turn to Jesus and come to Me.’”

2:10 vomited Jonah RITUAL Jonah in Liturgical Furnishings While Jonah's imagery has frequently been used to adorn the walls, ceilings, and floors of churches and synagogues, at various times it was fashionable to use its imagery on ambos and pulpits. See, for example, excellent examples in 11–12^th c. Italy and in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown in the 18^th c.

This ambo employs both Cosmatesque ornament—typical of medieval Italy—and mosaics depicting peacocks, Jonah, and the sea-monster (a typological reference to Christ’s death and resurrection). One mosaic depicts Jonah being swallowed by the sea-monster, and the other shows him emerging from its belly three days later. The representation of the character is steep, almost in silhouette, because the Cosmatesque style is essentially abstract. Indeed this geometric art requires advanced mathematical knowledge and fascinates as much as some contemporary artwork.

Such a direct connection of the story of Jonah with preaching might both admonish reluctant preachers and remind the congregation—who play the role of the Ninevites—that they are in need of repentance and forgiveness.

2:10 vomited Jonah Expelled from the Fish

Early Christian Art

• Contrary to the biblical text, Jonah is not vomited onto the shore but rather disgorged into a sea swarming with creatures (three fish, a crab, a snail, and a salamander). The scene of Jonah begging to a fisherman and his boy may be reminiscent of those standing “over the waters” in Ezekiel’s vision of the future Temple, Ez 47:10  “Fishermen will stand beside the sea; from Engedi to Eneglaim it will be a place for the spreading of nets; its fish will be of very many kinds, like the fish of the Great Sea. See also →Jonah: Visual Arts.

2:10 on the dry land Heading Back to Israeli Shore with Jonah The Romanian-Israeli artist Jean David was active in Israel from the 1940s onward. Some of his most well-known work consists of travel posters and advertisements done for El Al airlines. In this piece, David does not draw upon traditional and expected imagery when depicting Jonah in the whale. Jonah is not in distress; instead, his time in the whale is an image of comfortable travel back to Israel!

Eugene Abeshaus moved to Israel from Russia in the 1970s and joined the artist community in Ein Hod, which David had helped to found more than three decades prior. In keeping with the sensibility of David’s piece above, Abeshaus likens an immigrant’s arrival at the port of Haifa to Jonah’s expulsion from the whale.

3a according to the word of YHWH : M | G: as the Lord said (Further Emphasis)

• kidᵉbar-YHWH: M | G: kathôs elalêsen kurios.

It is possible that the repetition of the aorist verb form further emphasizes the connection to Jon 1:2. The very same message that the Lord communicated to Jonah initially in Jon 1:2, and about which the Lord reminded Jonah in Jon 3:2, is now finally proclaimed by Jonah in Jon 3:3 (Comparison of Versions Jon 3:2b).

3a went to Nineveh according to the word of YHWH The End of the Story for Many Children While some adaptations wrestle with the open ending of the book (Jon 4:11), others conclude the story here, choosing to focus on Jonah’s decision to go to Tarshish and his change of heart due to the time spent in the belly of the fish.

• This narrows the scope of the story to a moralizing tale about obedience that includes a fish adventure (see →Lorenz 1946; →Greene 2007; →Glaser 2015).
• Sometimes chapters 3 and 4 can be included, nearly reduced to a postscript: “Jonah went to Ninevah [sic] as the Lord commanded. And the people of Nineveh gave up their evil ways and believed in the Lord” (→Hutton 1983).
• →Davidson 1984 distills three lessons from the story: obedience, God is everywhere, and God forgives when we are sorry. The combination of Jonah disobeying and being found by God may make the moral lesson of obedience for children even more appealing to creators of children’s adaptations of Jonah.

3b–5 Minimal Effort Generates an Immediate Response With the recommissioning complete, the story moves at lightning speed: Jonah goes and calls out, the people believe and act. The narrator is not the only one who seems interested in moving the story along. Jonah walks one day, less than needed to reach the city center, and utters one sentence. It is only now that readers learn the content of the word of the Lord. The oracle is terse and Jonah does not repeat himself—but the results are effective: the people of Nineveh believe God. The prophet does not need to plead or make an elaborate display.

Immediate Response

It is clear that Nineveh is a “great city” in a tale that focuses on the extraordinary. This great size is matched only by the speed at which the whole city engages in ritual acts of repentance. Nineveh might even be a great city belonging to God or to the gods (Jon 3:3; see History of Translations Jon 3:3b). Likewise it is ambiguous whether the Ninevites repent because they believe God, believe in God, or, simply, believe the gods in general (Jon 3:5). However one translates this passage, it cannot be translated to say that they believed Jonah. Nineveh’s size is foregrounded in the text’s description as an indication not so much of the enormity of Jonah’s task, but of the proportion of God’s concern for the city’s repentance.

Minimal Effort

Jonah seems to do the absolute minimum to fulfill his duty. He delivers his oracle, but does not elaborate. He seeks no one out and does not go to the king (Literary Devices Jon 3:6a). Instead, readers are told that, although the city is three days across, Jonah does not even make it into the center before he delivers his line. Compare Jonah’s terse message with the extravagant pleading one hears from Jeremiah, who calls upon the people to put on sackcloth and engage in ritual acts of penitence and mourning (Jer 4:8). He begs them to “wash your heart from wickedness, that you may be saved” (Jer 4:14). Jeremiah’s desire for the people to repent and save themselves causes him distress: “My anguish, my anguish! I writhe in pain! Oh, the walls of my heart! My heart is beating wildly; I cannot keep silent for I hear the sound of the trumpet, the alarm of war” (Jer 4:19, RSV).

Because the message is so brief (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:4b), some have concluded that this must be an abridged report, maybe the title of his sermon rather than the content of it (Christian Tradition Jon 3:4b). Regardless, God does not accuse Jonah of neglecting his task.

3b a great city belonging to God NARRATION Characterization of Nineveh

Enormity of the City

Nineveh is referred to as a “great city” three times (Jon 1:2; 3:3; 4:11). It’s breadth is a three days’ journey (Jon 3:3). The frequent reminders of Nineveh’s size may serve to :

• accentuate the enormity of the task before Jonah;
• highlight the drama of the Ninevites’ response;
• underscore the extent of God’s authority over cities, even such a great one.

The Ninevites’ Relationship to God

Most translators interpret lē’lōhîm as signifying the city’s size (an exceedingly great city). We have chosen to render it such that it expresses a relationship of some sort between the city and God.

• Do Ninevites even know this God (Yhwh) who would seem to claim possession of their city?
• Although foreign and committed to other deities, Yhwh has authority over it and thus calls it to repentance. This is, of course, contrary to the general notion in Near Eastern and Mediterranean polytheism that each city and tribe has its own particular god.
• Arguably lē’lōhîm could be rendered “to the gods,” emphasizing the city’s polytheistic devotion.

Imagined Geography

While Jon 1 seems to exhibit much interest in geography, the second half of Jonah seems less concerned with it. How should we interpret the details given about the city of Nineveh? Though Nineveh did exist in ancient history (and was actually destroyed in the 7^th c. B.C.), the narrative’s choice to avoid geographic details, especially with regard to Nineveh, presses readers to go beyond the bare meaning of the text. Indeed, the narrative seems to employ geography as a plot device—to press for historical accuracy might miss the point of the narrative (cf. the mystical interpretations of Jonah’s flight to Tarshish at Christian Tradition Jon 1:3a).  

• The narrative is silent about where Jonah emerged from the fish, Jonah’s journey to Nineveh, and urbanistic details of the city itself, such as its quarters or gates.
• The historical city was large, but not as large as in the narrative (120,000 inhabitants or a three-day walk to cross).

The narrative’s vagueness, therefore, should indicate that this is not intended to be a travelogue.

3b,5a,8ff God Theological Ambiguity: Which God (or Gods)? Whereas in Jon 1:14 the sailors clearly called out to Yhwh, the object of the Ninevites’ entreaty is less clear (Jon 3:8–9), for the word ’ĕlōhîm, used of God in Jon 3, is ambiguous. Grammatically, it is simply the plural of the Hebrew word for “god” or “divinity.” Especially since the Ninevites are polytheistic, the word ’ĕlōhîm may refer to :

• the gods in general;
• Nineveh’s patronal deity—Ishtar;
• the God of Jonah, Yhwh.

Likewise, it is possible that the Ninevites here profess a henotheistic belief in Yhwh, acknowledging him as the supreme God among many lesser gods.

Context, however, makes a polytheistic or pagan interpretation of ’ĕlōhîm unlikely: the narrative is focused upon illustrating Yhwh’s mercy towards Nineveh, the book as a whole is committed to monotheism, and Jonah himself is a self-professed monotheist (Jon 1:9). Thus, it is likely that ĕlōhîm, as elsewhere in Biblical Hebrew, denotes the God (Yhwh) of the Hebrews (cf. Grammar Jon 3:3b; Jewish Tradition Jon 3:3b). 

3b great city belonging to God : M | G: a great city to God (Isomorphic Translation)

• ‘îr-gᵉdôlâ lē’lōhîm: M | G: polis megalê tôᵢ theôᵢ.

While it is possible that the Greek translator did not understand the idiom (Grammar Jon 3:3b), it is more likely that this is an instance of word-for-word “translation Greek” that is characteristic of G’s Jonah.

4b Forty days : M | G: Three days 

• ’arbā‘îm: M | G: treis hêmerai.

M and G differ on the number of days that Nineveh has to repent. One could reasonably argue that either reading is the original one.

G Is Original: M Bolsters Jonah’s résumé

• The phrase “forty days” (’arbā‘îm yôm) is found 17 times in M, mostly in the narratives about Noah and Moses (Gn 7:4,12,17; 8:6; Ex 24:18; 34:28; Nm 13:25; 14:34; Dt 9:9,11,18; 10:10), as well as the prophetic accounts about Elijah (1Kgs 19:8) and Ezekiel (Ez 4:6).

• It is possible, therefore, that a scribe harmonized Jonah with the above patterns in order to link Jonah more clearly with other great figures of the Bible.

M Is Original: G Is a Change Due to Attraction

• The phrase “three days” (š^ᵉlōšâ/šᵉlōšet yāmîm) occurs over 35 times in M, and twice in Jonah (Jon 1:17; 3:3).

• In an unpointed text, the absolute and construct of “three” would have looked quite similar—the difference would be between a final he or taw.

• Thus, it is possible that “forty days” was original and it became “three days” as the result of attraction to the three days found in v. 3b.

This difference inspired much interpretation in the book’s reception history. Many Church Fathers (following G) reflected upon the brevity of time given for repentance: that is, they understood the passage to mean that after three days of repentance, God would relent—hence it is remarkable that God would show mercy even after such a short period of repentance. Since V follows M, the Glossa ordinaria is aware of both traditions and finds both fruitful for exegesis (Christian Tradition Jon 3:4b).

4b Forty days MOTIF The Number Forty: A Comprehensive Period of Time

Periods of Judgment

• The flood of Noah is brought by rains that last forty days and nights (Gn 7:12,17).

• Ezekiel lays on his right side for a period of forty days in a symbolic enactment of Judah’s sins (Ez 4:6).

• Ezekiel prophesies against the Egyptians and claims that their land will be desolate for forty years (Ez 29:11–16).

Stages of Life

• Isaac is forty years old when he marries Rebekah (Gn 25:20).

• David rules over Israel for forty years (1Kgs 2:11; 11:42).

• The judges Othniel (Jgs 3:9–11), Ehud (Jgs 3:15–30), Deborah/Barak (Jgs 4:4–5:31), and Gideon (Jgs 6:11–8:32), and the priest Eli (1Sm1:1–4:18) all lead Israel for forty or eighty years.

The Exodus Account

• Moses dies when 120 years old (Dt 34:7), which can be interpreted as three lives: forty years each in Egypt, Midian, and the wilderness (cf. Ex 7:7).

• Moses climbs Mt. Sinai to receive the Torah and is there for forty days and nights (Ex 24:18; 34:1–28).

• The Israelite scouts reconnoiter the Promised Land for forty days (Nm 13:25; 14:34).

• The Israelites spend forty years wandering in the wilderness (Ex 16:35; Nm 32:13; Dt 29:5).

• Elijah recapitulates Moses’ experience with forty days on Mt. Horeb (1Kgs 19:8).

5a the men of Nineveh believed Why Did the Ninevites Repent So Quickly?

• →ibn Ezra Comm.: the sailors also went to Nineveh, corroborating Jonah's account.

• →Abarbanel Comm.: The Ninevites' belief refers only to their accepting that God had the power to destroy the city if he so wished and that he loves righteousness.

• →Malbim Gé’ ḥizzāyôn: The Ninevites realized that God would not have sent such a prophet if he had not intended them to use the 40-day grace period to mend their ways.

See →Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 123.

3b a great city belonging to God Modern English Translations: A Crux Interpretum The Hebrew expression ‘îr-gᵉdôlâ lē’lōhîm (lit. a city-of great/large to-g/God[s]) describing Nineveh is polysemous; determining its meaning entails adjudicating numerous semantic and grammatical variables: Grammar Jon 3:3b; Jewish Tradition Jon 3:3b. Though some word-for-word translations into English have been attempted, most have adjudicated the previously mentioned issues by offering an idiomatic translation that focuses on the city’s size (“large”) or its status (“great”), while sometimes also providing notes about the “literal” meaning of the phrase.

Literal

• YLT: “A great city before God”;
• NASB note: “lit.: a great city to God."

Idiomatic – Size

• DRB: “a large city”;
• NIV: “a very large city”;
• NASB 2020: “an exceedingly large city”;
• NET: “an enormous city”;
• NLT: “A city so large...”

Idiomatic – Status

• (N)KJV, ESV, ASV, (N)RSV, NASB 1995: “an exceedingly great city”;
• NJB: “a great city beyond compare”;
• NABRE: “an awesomely great city."

8b to God Or: "Upon God" (Hebrew Variant)

• M attests the preposition ’el in the phrase "to God."
• MurXII (Mur88 11:18) contains the variant ‘al, "upon God" (→DJD II, 191).
• G's pros supports M. 

6a the word reached the king Violent Connotation and Authority of a Decree The semantic field of the Hebrew root ng‘ encompasses violent interactions (i.e., striking, plaguing, smiting, afflicting). Thus, “reached” should have a negative and forceful connotation, as if the word “struck” or “assailed” the king. Analogous expressions can be found in Est 8:17; 9:1 where “the king’s word and his decree reach” his subjects. If this phraseology is at work in Jonah,

• “the word” is to be understood as the word of Yhwh recorded in Jon 3:4 and not as the report concerning the events in the repenting city described in the preceding verse, Jon 3:5;

• the king of Nineveh is depicted as a subject of Yhwh.

7ab by the decree of the king + shall taste — Wordplay

• The Hebrew term ṭa‘am can mean “taste,” “authority,” or “judgement.”

The use of this term in v. 7a sets up a play on words since it is repeated in v. 7b in the content of the announcement that humans and animals are forbidden to taste anything: ’al yiṭ‘ămû (→Sasson 1990, 256).

10

A Well-Structured Conclusion

Jon 3:10 is dense with repetition, and the structure can be viewed differently depending on whether one organizes it according to vocabulary or grammar.

Vocabulary

• ABBA chiasm based on keywords (āśâ/rā‘ā/rā‘ā/‘āśâ; →Trible 1994, 183; →Jenson 2008, 80). 

Grammar

• clause - object clause | clause - object clause - clause;
• clause - causal clause | clause - object clause - clause (→Sasson 1990, 263-264).

NARRATION Characterization of God: Not above Changing His Mind

In Jonah, God is quick to forgive (Jon 4:3). Uncharacteristic of the omniscient deity of systematic theology, he seems to watch the actions of human beings with hope and interest. One could even draw the implication that he does not know how the Ninevites will react (Comparison of Versions Jon 3:9).

6a the king of Nineveh Kings of Assyria in the Bible As with the pharaoh of the Exodus, it is probably not possible to identify this king with any particular historical figure. In other contexts, the Bible is concerned with specificity and identifies five consecutive Assyrian kings by name:

• Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 B.C.) dominated Israel through exacting tribute and installing Hoshea as king (2Kgs 15:19–16:12).
• Shalmaneser V (727–722 B.C.) began the attack on the Israelite capital of Samaria (2Kgs 17–18).
• Sargon II (722–705 B.C.) completed the conquest of Samaria (Is 20).
• Sennacherib (705–681 B.C.) besieged Jerusalem, making Hezekiah a vassal (2Kgs 18:13–19:36).
• Esarhaddon (681–669 B.C.) replaced his father, who was assassinated by other sons (2Kgs 19:37).

If, based on the reference in 2Kgs 14:25, the Book of Jonah is intended to take place during the reign of Jeroboam II (c. 790–750 B.C.), the story should take place during the reigns of Shalmaneser IV (783–773 B.C.) or Ashur-dan III (773–755 B.C.).

One king who is not mentioned in the Bible is Shalmaneser III (859–824 B.C.). The British Museum, however, holds an important artifact that depicts King Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser III, the  

.

Records of victories of Shalmaneser III feature on the top and the bottom of the reliefs, in cuneiform inscriptions. They enumerate the campaigns which the king and his commander-in-chief headed every year, until the 31^st year of the reign.

Further down is purportedly the scene of King Jehu making obeisance and bearing tribute. The Assyrian cuneiform inscription above the scene reads:

• “I received the tribute of Iaua (Jehu) son of (the people of the land of) Omri: silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king [and] spears” (→Ackerman 2010, 127).

8c,9a turn + God may turn — LANGUAGE Theological Play on Words?

LANGUAGE Prophecy

This episode of the king’s command and the Ninevites’ repentance is yet one more instance wherewith the author aims to exhibit the piety of Gentiles, seeing as they pray and act in accord with a Deuteronomic worldview.

• In this particular instance, the king’s decree that the people “turn from their evil ways” calls to mind a basic prophetic formula expressed throughout the Bible (Jer 15:7; Ez 3:19; 13:22).

• The specific formula employed here bears closest resemblance to the words of Jeremiah (Jer 18:11; 23:22; 25:5; 26:3; 36:3,7).

PRAGMATICS Specular Relationship between God and Humanity

The repetition of šwb emphasizes the mirroring between God and man throughout Scriptures: inasmuch as man turns towards God, God turns towards him. God, however, is the first mover, calling Abraham and his progeny to faith. In the Hebrew Bible, this synergistic relationship is well expressed in figures that use the same word to describe human and divine actions.

Exodus 3

The paradigmatic encounter at the burning bush (Ex 3) presents several locutions that echo one another. For instance, Ex 3:14 “God said unto Moses, I am who I am,” mirrors Ex 3:11 “Moses said unto God, Who am I?” Or, in Ex 3:4 both protagonists, the human and the divine, look at each other: “Yhwh saw that he turned aside to see.”

Isaiah 7

Sometimes, this relationship is expressed by using different forms of the same root when describing human and divine action.

Isaiah provides a famous example in the warning inserted right before the Emmanuel oracle (Is 7:9): ’im lô ta’ămînû kî lô tē’āmēnû “If you will not believe, surely you shall not be established” (RSV); “If your faith does not remain firm, then you will not remain secure” (NET).

• Phonetically, there is something tautological about it, because the same root ’mn is used in both propositions, in two forms that entail only slight vocalic changes: ta’ămînû and tē’āmēnû.

• Semantically, it sounds a bit like the French proverb, Aide-toi, le Ciel t’aidera (“God helps those who help themselves”).

• Poetically, the derivation of ’mn encapsulates a correct conception of the divine and human action: one single action (signified by a single root) is entirely divine (nip‘al tense), and entirely human (hip‘il tense).

• Echoes of this passage resonate in 2Chr 20:20 (ha’ămînû…tē’āmēnû).

Man’s activity is both an answer to God’s Word and a gift of God. G interprets this tautology in terms of noetic gain (G-Is 7:9 kai ean mê pisteusête oude mê suniête; cf. Anselm’s epigram, likely based on the Vetus Latina: nisi credidero, non intelligam), as if the text were recording its own performativity.

10a God saw their deeds The Character of Repentance

• Abarbanel states that the Ninevites repented of their deeds, not their pagan beliefs. Nevertheless, God forgave them, because their wicked deeds were the cause of God's judgement (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 129–130).

6ff Sola Scriptura: The King Does Not Prescribe Any Penance beyond That Described in the Bible

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "Now, if anyone objects and says that nothing ought to be done in the worship of God beyond what his word warrants, the answer is—that the king of Nineveh had not appointed any kind of expiation, neither did he intend that they should thus worship God, but regarded only the end which I have mentioned; and that end fully harmonizes with the word of God and his command."

6a the king The Lofty Are the Last to Believe

• →Gloss. ord. "After the weak and ignoble people had been chosen, at last the word of Christ arrived to the philosophers and powerful ones who seemed to rule the world. First Peter the fisherman enters, then Cyprian [of Carthage], formerly a champion of idolatry, finally believes, and having become a champion of truth after he heard the message of Jonah, he summons the Carthaginians to repentance and publicly preaches Christ. Behold the king of Nineveh rises from his throne and exchanges purple-dyed cloth for sackcloth, lotions for mud, purity for filth. It is a difficult thing for the powerful and eloquent of the world to convert to the humility of Christ."

10a God saw their deeds Justification by Faith

God's Mercy Is His Justice

• →Gloss. ord. "At that time God threatened the Ninevites and every day he threatens the people of the world so that they might do penance. If they have converted, God also converts his judgment and is changed by the conversion of the people. He did not hear the words that Israel often used to send up—‘All that the Lord has spoken, we will do’ (Ex 24:7)—but he, who desires the life more than the death of a sinner, saw their works. Seeing their changed works, he gladly changes his mind. Rather let us say that he persisted in his purpose, wishing from the beginning to show mercy. For he did not want to punish, nor was he who threatened going to punish."

Confessional Polemic: Salvation by Faith Alone

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "We must first see what works he means, that no one may snatch at a single word, as hypocrites are wont to do; and this, as we have said, is very commonly the case under the Papacy. God had respect to their works—what works? not sackcloth, not ashes, not fasting; for Jonah does not now mention these; but he had respect to their works—because they turned from their evil way. We hence see that God was not pacified by outward rites only, by the external profession of repentance, but that he rather looked on the true and important change which had taken place in the Ninevites, for they had become renewed. These then were their works, even the fruits of repentance. And such a change of life could not have taken place, had not the Ninevites been really moved by a sense of God’s wrath. The fear of God then had preceded; and this fear could not have been without faith. We hence see that he chiefly speaks here not of external works, but of the renovation of men."
• →Luther Lect. Jon. "Here, yes, here the works are lauded. What are we to say against that? Here the work-righteous have carried the day. Far from it! Scrutinize the text! It reads: ‘God saw what they did,’ that is God was pleased with what they did. And what did they do? The prophet mentions it himself: ‘They turned from their evil way.’ If you perform and teach that type of work, we are not only willing to listen to your exalting it, but we will join you in your praise of it. ‘To turn from one’s evil way’ is not a trivial work; it does not involve fasting and wearing sackcloth, but believing in God with all one’s heart and loving the neighbor as one’s self; that is, it demands piety and righteousness in one’s whole being, both inwardly and outwardly, in body and soul. God wants the entire person. He has an aversion to shilly-shallying and hypocritical people."  

1:1–4:11 Significance of the Names for God? Throughout Jonah readers find several names for God: YHWH (22x); ’Ēl/’Ĕlôhîm (13x); and YHWH ’Ĕlôhîm (4x).

• →Magonet (1983) suggests that the generic name is used in the context of punishment, whereas the Tetragrammaton is used in the context of mercy and forgiveness.
• →Sasson (1990, 17–18) charts their usage and concludes that the only sensible solution is to admit to no discernable pattern.

1:1–4:11 Veracity of Jonah as a Miraculous Account

• →Luther Tischr. 3705 “The majesty of the prophet Jonah is surpassing. He has but four chapters, and yet he moved therewith the whole kingdom, so that in his weakness, he was justly a figure and a sign of the Lord Christ. Indeed, it is surprising that Christ should recur to this but in four words. Moses likewise, in few words describes the creation, the history of Abraham, and other great mysteries; but he spends much time in describing the tent, the external sacrifices, the kidneys and so on; the reason is, he saw that the world greatly esteemed outward things, which they beheld with their carnal eyes, but that which was spiritual, they soon forgot. The history of the prophet Jonah is almost incredible, sounding more strange than any poet's fable; if it were not in the Bible, I should take it for a lie; for consider, how for the space of three days he was in the great belly of the whale, whereas in three hours he might have been digested and changed into the nature, flesh and blood of that monster; may not this be said, to live in the midst of death? In comparison of this miracle, the wonderful passage through the Red Sea was nothing. But what appears more strange is, that after he was delivered, he began to be angry, and to expostulate with the gracious God, touching a small matter not worth a straw. It is a great mystery. I am ashamed of my exposition upon this prophet, in that I so weakly touch the main point of this wonderful miracle.”

1:6c,14b; 3:9b; 4:10c perish + perished — Isotopy of Death: Structuring Repetition

Sailors and the Ninevites: “We might not perish”

Hope for salvation from death is expressed by:

• The captain of the ship (Jon 1:6);
• The sailors (Jon 1:14);
• The king and nobles of Nineveh (Jon 3:9).

Jonah: “hurl me into the sea”

Jonah ultimately comes to believe that he can only escape God’s call through death. In the belly of the fish, however, he realizes that such an escape is not possible (cf. Christian Tradition Jon 2:2–6). The sailors' and Ninevites’ desire for salvation is starkly juxtaposed with Jonah’s repeated wishes for death (māwet), both on the ship amidst the storm and in his booth, beyond the walls of Nineveh, for his desire that the Ninevites would receive their comeuppance brings him great anguish when God spares them destruction (Jon 4:8–9).

The Dead Shrub

• The shrub which perishes overnight (Jon 4:10) inspires more pity in Jonah than the potential massacre of Nineveh’s population.

1:17–2:10 Fish in Folklore: "Island" and "Swallow" Tales Two types of fish-tale are found in folklore:

• the “island” tale;
• the “swallow” tale.

The former kind usually involves sailors who spot an island upon which they disembark and encamp. Having lit a bonfire, the sailors learn the “island” is actually a huge fish when, in reaction to the fire, it sinks to the depths drowning some or all of the travelers.

The latter kind of tale usually consists of seafarers who are swallowed by a fish and strive to free themselves by various means and with varying success.

“Island” Tales

• In the →Avesta: Yasna 9.10–11, Keresaspa slays a horned monster upon whom he had begun to boil a kettle. “Hot grew this deceiver and began to sweat. Forth from under the kettle rushed he, and upset the boiling water.”
•  →Ps.-Callisthenes Alex. 224 contains a letter purportedly written by Alexander the Great to Aristotle, wherein he describes an “island” in India that reveals itself to be a sea-monster, “for the evil barbarians had said it was an island, but it was a whale.”
• A similar story also appears in the First Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor (→1001 Nights 3:5–13).
• The Vita metrica sancti Brendani contains an episode wherein Brendan says Mass on the back of a fish (→Act. S. Brend. 55–56).

“Swallow” Tales

• →Vishńú puráńa: Pradyumna, a six-day-old child, is swallowed by a large fish.
• In →Somadeva Kath., the following are “swallow” tales: The Story of Bhímabhata, The Story of Keśata and Kandarpa, and The Story of the Two Princesses.
• → Lucian of Samosata Ver. hist. 1.30–42 relates the story of a great fish measuring 170 miles in length who swallowed the protagonists’ ship, its interior containing an island with human and non-human inhabitants. First, the seafarers try to escape by tunneling out, but give up after half-a-mile leads to nothing. Secondly, they set fire to the interior forest which, after twelve days, weakens the monster, allowing their ship to be pushed out through its mouth.
• In a footnote for the myth of Hesione and Hercules in →Ps.-Apollodorus Bibl. 2.5.9, Frazer amplifies the tale with an anecdote drawn from a medieval commentator: “Tzetzes says that Hercules, in full armour, leaped into the jaws of the sea-monster, and was in its belly for three days hewing and hacking it, and that at the end of the three days he came forth without any hair on his head. The Scholiast on Homer tells the tale similarly” (1:208). Emerging hairless from the fish is a common trope (cf. →Duan. Finn 60.16-17; →Coulter 1926; →Ziolkowski 1984).
• The Vita metrica sancti Brendani likewise contains a “swallow” tale (→Act. S. Brend. 63–64).

1:17–2:1; 2:10 fish Sea Monsters in Greek Literature

• →Homer Od. 12.97: kêtos refers to the great beast that Scylla eats.
• →Homer Il. 20.147: kêtos refers to a menacing monster of the deep from which Heracles flees.
• →Euripides Androm. fr. 1: kêtos refers to the sea monster sent by Poseidon that nearly devoured Andromeda. Andromeda was the beautiful daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiope of Joppa in Palestine. On one occasion, Cassiope boasted that Andromeda was more beautiful than the Nereids, sea-nymphs, thereby offending them. In order to obtain satisfaction, Poseidon sent a kêtos to devastate Cepheus’ kingdom, and it would only relent when Cepheus agreed to offer Andromeda as a sacrifice to it. Thus, Andromeda was chained to a rock on the coast near the city of Joppa and left to be devoured by the kêtos (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3b). Fortunately, Perseus slew the monster in exchange for Andromeda’s hand in marriage and she eventually bore him six sons and a daughter (cf. →Hamilton 1953, 204–207).
• →Ps.-Apollodorus Bibl. 2.5.9: kêtos refers to the sea monster sent by Poseidon that nearly devoured Hesione. The gods Apollo and Poseidon decided to test the justice of King Laomedon by taking on human form and agreeing to fortify the city of Pergamum for him for a wage. When Laomedon did not pay, Apollo sent a pestilence and Poseidon sent a kêtos that would snatch people away when carried up to the plain by a flood. Laomedon’s only recourse was to offer his daughter Hesione as a sacrifice to the kêtos, which he did by fastening her to the rocks near the sea. She was eventually saved by Hercules, who slew the kêtos in exchange for the mares which Zeus had given to Laomedon in compensation for the rape of Ganymede. However, Laomedon reneged on the deal and Hercules threatened to make war on Troy.

1:17b–2:1 innards

Jonah, between Jewish and Christian Liturgies: His Presence in the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles

Jonah is briefly mentioned in a prayer contained in  →Const. ap., a 4^th-c. work that collects authoritative apostolic prescriptions on moral conduct, liturgy, and the proper order in the Church (cf. →Bradshaw 2002, 73–87).

Jonah in the Context of Prayer: Litany of the Righteous

The mention of Jonah “in the belly of the sea-monster” (Iôna en têᵢ koiliaᵢ tou kêtous; →Const. ap. 7.37.4) appears in one of sixteen prayers collected in the seventh treatise of the Constitutions (→Const. ap. 7.33–45). These prayers seem to be liturgical in nature (cf. →Bradshaw 2002, 73–87), and in the case of prayer six, the one in which Jonah is mentioned, there is a clear focus on petitionary prayer.

• →Const. ap. 7.37.1: The opening of the prayer invokes the mediation of Jesus Christ, entreating God to listen to the supplication of his people just as he received the gifts (i.e., offerings and prayers) of the righteous throughout history.
• →Const. ap. 7.37.2–4 proceeds to enumerate some 35 examples of such righteous people from the OT, arranged more or less chronologically, from Abel to the priest Mattathias.
• →Const. ap. 7.37.5: the prayer concludes with another invocation of Christ along with the Holy Spirit: “and now therefore receive the petitions (proseuchas) of your people, which are offered (prospheromenas) to you with recognition (met' epignôseôs) through Christ in the Spirit.” It is likely that this final invocation would have introduced the specific petitions of the contemporary Christian community. Jonah’s prayer is thus presented as one of many historical examples of God’s beneficence in listening to his people that was meant to inform Christian worship.

Cf. similarities with the prayers of the Roman Canon after the consecration, which entreat the Father to accept the priest’s sacrifice by invoking the memory of righteous figures from the OT:

• →Miss. Rom. 1570 “Upon which vouchsafe to look with a propitious and serene countenance, and to accept them, as Thou wert graciously pleased to accept the gifts of Thy just servant Abel, and the sacrifice of our patriarch Abraham, and that which Thy high priest Melchisedech offered to Thee, a holy Sacrifice, an unspotted Victim” (Supra quae propitio ac sereno vultu respicere digneris: et accepta habere, sicuti accepta habere dignatus es munera pueri tui iusti Abel, et sacrificium Patriarchae nostri Abrahae: et quod tibi obtulit summus sacerdos tuus Melchisedech, sanctum sacrificium, immaculatam hostiam).

Affinities with Jewish Prayers

• →3 Macc. 6.1-15: In his entreaty for God’s aid, Eleazar recounts the history of God’s faithfulness to and solicitude for Israel, namely, the Exodus, the miraculous defeat of the Assyrians, the salvation of the three youths (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) from the furnace, Daniel’s protection in the den of lions, and, finally, Jonah’s restoration from the belly of the “sea-born monster.” Eleazar thus concludes in a manner reminiscent of Jonah’s prayer in the whale: “Let it be shown to all heathen that thou art with us, O Lord, and hast not turned thy face away from us; but as thou hast said, ‘Not even when they were in the land of their enemies have I forgotten them' (Lv 26:44), even so bring it to pass, O Lord” (→3 Macc. 6:15; Emmet 1918, 38–39; cf. Peritestamental Literature Jon 2:10).
• Jewish synagogue prayers: Some early 20^th c. scholars observe that the sixteen prayers found in the seventh treatise of →Const. ap. resemble Jewish synagogal prayers, and argue that the historical context of the diaspora would have provided ample opportunity for Christian adaptation of these prayers (→Bousset 1916, 438–485;  →Kohler 1924, 410–425; →Goodenough 1935, 306–316).
• Further, it is noteworthy that in the sixth prayer, the long list of historical exemplars is entirely focused on the OT; Christ is only mentioned preceding and following this litany (→Const. ap. 7.37.1,5). According to →Bousset (1916, 445–446), this suggests that it was a Christian adaptation of what was originally a Jewish prayer.

Jonah and Byzantine Liturgical Poetry

The Canons (largely composed by John of Damascus and Cosmas of Maiuma) sung during the great feasts of the Byzantine Liturgy contain several references to Jonah's time in the whale. Together they summarize the Church's typological interpretation of the book.

• →Hapgood Service Book First Canon, Nativity of the Theotokos: "From within the whale Jonah cried unto the Lord: 'Lead me forth, I beseech thee, from the depths of Hell unto thee; that unto thee, as the deliverer, with the voice of praise, and in the spirit of truth, I may offer sacrifice'" (165).
• →Hapgood Service Book First Canon, Elevation of the Holy Cross: "Jonah, when he stretched forth his arms in the form of a cross within the belly of the sea-monster, did clearly typify the Redeeming Suffering; and when he came forth thence after three days, he imaged forth by anticipation the supernatural Resurrection of Christ our God, who was crucified in the flesh and hath illumined the world by his rising on the third day" (168).
• →Hapgood Service Book Canticle VI, Nativity of Christ: "The sea-monster cast forth Jonah from its belly unharmed as it had swallowed him. And when the Word took up his abode in a Virgin, and was made flesh, He came forth preserving her undefiled. For in that He Himself suffered not corruption, He preserved unharmed her who bare Him" (178).
• →Hapgood Service Book Canon of Holy Thursday: "The nethermost abyss of sins hath compassed me about, and unable to endure the billows thereof, like Jonah I cry aloud unto thee, O Master: ‘Lead me forth from corruption'" (209). 
• →Hapgood Service Book Canon of Matins, Holy Saturday: "Jonah was seized but was not held in the belly of the whale, in that he represented the type of thee, who didst suffer and give thyself over unto burial; and he came forth from the monster as from a chamber of repose, and spake unto the guards: 'Ye that regard lying vanities have forsaken your own mercy'" (222).
• →Hapgood Service Book Canticle VI, Easter: "Thou didst descend into the nethermost parts of the earth, O Christ, and didst shatter the bonds eternal which held the prisoners in captivity: and after three days thou didst rise again from the grave, like Jonah from the whale" (230).
• →Hapgood Service Book Canon of Pentecost: "Sailing on the stormy sea of earthly cares, drowning in the billows of the sins which compass me round about, and cast forth unto the soul destroying monster, like Jonah I cry unto thee, O Christ: ‘Lead thou me forth from the death dealing abyss'" (247). 

1:17–2:10 Midrashic Retelling and Expansion of Jonah as a Redemption Story In →Tanḥ., great attention is given to Jonah’s sojourn in the fish. Reworked as a redemption story, here, Jonah rescues the fish from Leviathan and is, in turn, rewarded with a vision of hidden mysteries.

Background of Midrash Tanḥuma and Its Translation

Midrash Tanḥuma is a late midrash (ca. 7th-9th c. A.D) on the five books of the Torah, and it is arranged as a series of sermons on the opening verses of each paragraph. It is named after the Talmudic sage Rabbi Tanhuma, who appears throughout the text, though it is also sometimes referred to as “Tanḥuma-Yelammedenu” (“teach us Tanḥuma”). Though English translations have been published (e.g., Berman 1996; Townsend 1989-2003), these are incomplete and omit →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.  Thus, in the following citations of the material mentioning Jonah, we have relied on the Sefaria Community Translation.

The Fish as a Living-Room

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “And the Lord designated a great fish to swallow Jonah, and Jonah was in the innards of the fish three days and three nights’ (Jon 1:17), and Jonah entered its mouth, like a man that enters a large synagogue, and the two eyes of the fish were like opened windows giving light to Jonah. Rabbi Meir said: ‘A pearl was hanging in the innards of the fish, and it would give light to Jonah, like the sun lights up in its strength in the afternoon. And Jonah could see everything that was in the sea and that was in the depths, as it is stated: ‘Light is planted for the righteous, and joy for the righteous of heart’ (Ps 97:11).”

Descent in the Depths of the Sea-World and Ascension to the Origins of Creation

Jonah Saves Himself and the Fish from Leviathan Thanks to His Circumcision

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “The fish said to Jonah: ‘Do you not know that my time has come to be eaten into the mouth of the Leviathan?’ He said to it, ‘Take me there and I will save you, and my soul.’ It took him to the Leviathan. He said to the Leviathan, ‘Because of you have I come to see your dwelling place in the sea. And not only that, but in the future I will come down to put a rope on your neck and to bring you up for the great meal of the righteous ones.’ He showed it his seal from Avraham (ḥwtmw šl ’brhm), our father (his circumcision) [according to →Pirqe R. El. 10 where it is called “the seal of the covenant”: hbṭ lbryt]. The Leviathan saw it and fled a journey of two days from before Jonah.”

Jonah Is Rewarded with the Revelation of Divine Entities

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “He said to the fish, ‘Behold, I saved you from the mouth of the Leviathan; [now] show me all that is in the sea and in the depths.’ And [so] it showed him the great river of the waters of the ocean, as it is stated (Jon 2:5), ‘up to my soul was the deep.’ And it showed him the paths of the Red (lit. 'Reed') Sea, as it is stated, ‘reeds are twined around my head.’ And it showed him the place from where the breakers of the sea and its waves go out, as it is stated (Jon 2:3), ‘all Your breakers and waves passed over me.’ And it showed him the pillars of the Earth in its foundation, as it is stated (Jon 2:6), ‘the bars of the earth were around me forever.’ And it showed him Gehinnom, as it is written (Jon 2:2), ‘from the belly of the pit I cried out; You heard my voice.’ And it showed him under the Chamber of God, as it is stated (Jon 2:6), ‘I descended to the bases of the mountains.’ From here readers learn that Jerusalem stands on seven mountains. And he saw the Stone of the Foundation there, set in the depths. And he saw the sons of Korah, standing and praying upon it. It said to Jonah, ‘Behold, you are standing under the Chamber of the Lord; pray and you shall be answered.’”

Note the apocalyptic dimension of this retelling. The underwater exploration of the world thereafter amounts to a reversed apocalyptic travel in the heavens.

Note the liturgical and ritual dimension of the story, particularly the apotropaic effect of the circumcision (construed as a sacrifice), the sign of the covenant, which frightens Leviathan; the foundation stone of the Temple; and the encounter with the sons of Korah, the prestigious guild of cantors in the Temple.

Note also its messianic and eschatological dimension: “the great meal of the righteous ones” is the messianic banquet promised to the just, where Leviathan will be eaten and its skin transformed in a vast gleaming tent, or sūkkâ. Leviathan’s flesh may not be kosher—since he is often said to be a serpent or dragon: this is a sign of the abolition of the commandments, miṣwôt, in the (messianic) world to come, ‘ôlām habbâ (cf. →b. B. Bat. 75a–b; →Tanḥ. Shemini 7; but see also →b. Ḥul. 67b which argues that Leviathan’s flesh is kosher).

Note too its protological dimension. The foundation stone of the world (’eben haš^etiyyâ), uncovered in Jonah’s mystical travel, is also the cornerstone of the Temple on Mount Moriah, traditionally identified as the place where God molded Adam, where Abraham “sacrificed” Isaac, where Jacob saw the heavenly ladder, etc. (cf. →Pirqe R. El. 35). The place is thus connected with the Creation itself (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a). 

Summary of Jonah’s Itinerary

According to the midrash, Jonah’s prayer summarizes his journey under the sea:

• The great river of the waters of the Ocean (Jon 2:5);
• The Sea of Reeds (yām sûp) through which Israel passed (Jon 2:5; cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 2:5b);
• The place whence the waves of the sea and its billows flow (Jon 2:3);
• The pillars of the earth and its foundations (‘mwdy ’rṣ wmkwnyh; cf. Jon 2:6 hā’āreṣ bᵉriḥêhâ);
• Gehinnom (gyhnm; cf. Jon 2:6 šaḥat);
• The lowest Sheol (š’wl tḥtyt; cf. Jon 2:2 beṭen šᵉ’ôl);
• The Temple of God (Jon 2:6 qiṣbé hārîm).

In this last place, the prophet sees the sons of Korah (i.e., performing their service in the Temple) who advise him to pray, for he is under the Temple of God and therefore he will be answered. Jonah orders the fish to stand still and it obeys.

Prayer of Jonah

Here the tradition clarifies what it is that Jonah vowed, namely, to bring Leviathan before the Lord, in anticipation of Israel’s future salvation.

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “Immediately Jonah said to the fish, ‘Stand in the place that you are standing, as I would like to recite a prayer.’ And the fish stopped. And Jonah began to pray in front of the Holy One, blessed be He, ‘Master of the Universe, You have been called the One that brings down and raises up—behold, I have gone down, [now] raise me up; You have been called the One that brings death and that brings life—behold, my soul has reached death, [now] bring me life.’ And he was not answered until [this] came out from his mouth: ‘that which I have vowed, I will fulfill, etc.’ (Jon 2:9)—‘That which I have vowed’ to bring up the Leviathan in front of You, ‘I will fulfill’ on the day of Israel’s salvation, as it is stated, ‘But I, with loud thanksgiving, will sacrifice to You that which I have vowed.’”

• →Pirqe R. El. 10 “Jonah began to pray before the Holy One, blessed be He, and he said: ‘Sovereign of all the Universe! Thou art called ‘the One who kills’ and ‘the One who makes alive,’ behold, my soul has reached unto death, now restore me to life’ [cf. Theology Jon 1:17b Bergsma]. He was not answered until this word came forth from his mouth, ‘What I have vowed I will perform’ (Jon 2:9), namely, ‘I vowed to draw up Leviathan and to prepare it before Thee, I will perform (this) on the day of the Salvation of Israel,’ as it is said, ‘But I will sacrifice unto thee with the voice of thanksgiving’ (Jon 2:9).”

Further Amplification

• →Yal. on Nach 550.2 “He said: Master of the World! Where can I go to escape Your spirit and to where can I flee from before You? ‘If I ascend to the heavens, You are there…’ (Ps 139:8). You are King over all kingdoms and Master over all rulers of the world. The high heavens are Your throne and the earth is Your footstool. Your kingdom is on high and Your dominion in the depths, the actions of all humanity are revealed before You and the secrets of all men spread out before You. You search out the ways of all people and examine the footsteps of all living things. You know the hidden things of the kidneys and the secrets of the heart You understand. All which is hidden is revealed before You, there are no secrets before the throne of your glory and nothing shielded from Your eyes. You collect every secret and tell every single thing. You are there in every place. Your eyes see evil and good. I beseech You, answer me from the belly of Sheol and save me from the depths. Let my cry come into Your ears and fulfill my request because You sit far away and hear as if near. You are called the One who lifts up and casts down, please lift me up! You are called the One who kills and gives life, I have reached the point of death—revive me! He was not answered until he said this: that which I vowed to bring up Leviathan and prepare him before them, I will fulfill on the day of Israel’s salvation. ‘But I—with a voice of thanks will I sacrifice to You’ (Jon 2:10).”

The citation of Jon 2:9 is reminiscent of the kol nidré (Liturgies Jon 2:1–9). Yet this rite seems to contrast with Jonah’s prayer, which is answered only when Jonah promises to fulfill his vow.

Happy Ending: Everybody Gets Circumcized!

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “And immediately the Holy One, blessed be He, commanded [to the fish], and it spewed Jonah out to the dry land, as it is stated (Jon 3:1), ‘And the Lord spoke to the fish, and it spewed Jonah out onto the dry land.’ When the sailors saw all of the great miracles, signs and wonders that the Holy One, blessed be He, did with Jonah , they got up and every man cast away his god, as it is stated (Jon 2:8), ‘They who preserve the vanities of emptiness forsake their kindness.’ And they went back to Jaffa and went up to Jerusalem, and they circumcised the flesh of their foreskin, as it is stated (Jon 1:16), ‘And the men feared a great fear of the Lord, and they slaughtered a sacrifice to the Lord and they made vows’—and did they slaughter a sacrifice? Rather, [this was] circumcision, which is like the blood of a sacrifice. And each man of them vowed to bring his children and everything that he had to the God of Jonah . And they vowed and they fulfilled [it]. And about them is it said, the converts were righteous converts.”
• →Pirqe R. El. 10 “The sailors saw all the signs, the miracles, and the great wonders which the Holy One, blessed be He, did unto Jonah, and they stood and they cast away every one his god, as it is said, ‘They that regard lying vanities forsake their own shame’ (Jon 2:8). They returned to Joppa and went up to Jerusalem and circumcised the flesh of their foreskins…Did they offer sacrifice? Is it not a fact that šᵉlāmîm (‘sacrifices’) are not accepted from Gentiles? But this (sacrifice) refers to the blood of the covenant of circumcision...And they made vows every one to bring his children and all belonging to him to the God of Jonah.” 

Others, following Rabbi Akiva’s judgment in →b. Menaḥ. 83b, say that the sailors offered ‘ôlôt (“whole-burnt offerings”), which may be accepted from Gentiles.

1:17; 2:1,10 fish He-fish or She-fish? Several commentators have attempted to account for the discrepancy present in the text’s use of both the masculine and feminine forms of the Hebrew word for “fish” in the book’s narrative. God appoints a male fish, Jonah prays within the belly of a female fish, and, finally, a male fish spits Jonah out onto the beach (cf. Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10; Visual Arts Jon 1:17–2:1; 2:10).

There Was Only One Fish

•   →b. Ned. 51b “Rab Pappa said to Abaye: From where is it derived that the phrase: ‘Fish [dāg] is konam for me, and for that reason I will not taste it,’ is a reference to a large fish? As it is written: ‘And the Lord prepared a great fish (dāg) to swallow up Jonah’ (Jon 1:17). The Gemara asks: ‘But isn’t it written in the following verse: Then Jonah prayed to the Lord his God out of the belly of the fish (dāgâ)’ (Jon 2:1)? This indicates that a large fish can be referred to as a dāgâ as well.”

There Were Two Different Animals

The association between the great fish and Leviathan in G (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; 2:10) is also reflected in a midrash on Jonah. See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10. 

Midrashic Commentary on the “She-fish”: A Divine Enticement to Pray

After recounting the midrash found in →Tanḥ., →Yal. continues its imaginative interpretation, devising a reason why a second, female, fish would intervene in the story:

• →Yal. on Nach 550.2 “Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the fish without praying. The Holy One said: ‘I made a broad space for him in the belly of a male fish in order that he not be distressed and he isn’t praying! I will prepare a fish that is pregnant with three hundred and sixty-five thousands and tens of thousands of little fish in order that he be distressed and pray before me.’ This is because the Holy One desires the prayers of the righteous. In that hour the Holy One brought a pregnant fish and she said to the other fish: ‘The Holy One sent me to swallow up the prophet who is in your belly. If you will spit him out, good. If not, I will swallow you with him.’ He said to her: ‘Who knows if what you say is true?’ She replied: ‘Leviathan.’ They went to Leviathan and she said to him: ‘Leviathan, king over all the fish of the sea! Do you not know that the Holy One sent me to this fish to swallow the prophet who is in his belly?’ He said to her: ‘Yes.’ The fish said to Leviathan: ‘When?’ He replied: ‘In the last three hours, when the Holy One descends to play with me. Thus I heard.’ He immediately spit out Jonah. The female fish right away swallowed him and he was in great distress because of the confinement and the filth. He immediately focused his heart in prayer, as it says ‘And Jonah prayed to the Lord his God, from the belly of the fish’ (Jon 2:1).”
• →Rashi Comm. likewise suggests that although Jonah was first swallowed by a male fish, its spacious belly allowed Jonah room to stand and so he was not compelled to pray. God then caused the male fish to spit Jonah into the mouth of a female fish, whose belly was full of roe. Now cramped and uncomfortable, the distressed Jonah was moved to prayer.

1:17–2:10

The Veracity of Jonah's Experience in the Great Fish

Many early patristic authors respond to doubts raised by non-Christians about the truth of Jonah’s experience.

• →Irenaeus of Lyons Haer. 5.5.2 “If, however, anyone imagines it is impossible that people should survive for such a length of time, and that Elijah was not caught up in the flesh but that flesh was consumed in the fiery chariot, let them consider that Jonah, when he had been cast into the deep and swallowed down into the whale’s belly, was by the command of God again thrown out safe upon the land.”

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 1:17, after posing a couple of representative questions doubting the event, states: “Our explanation, therefore, is that the event would rightly be taken to be truly remarkable and surpassing rhyme or reason. If God were said to be responsible, however, who would still demur? The Divinity is powerful, and easily changes the nature of living things to whatever he chooses, nothing standing in the way of his ineffable wishes; what is by nature corruptible would prove superior even to corruption if he willed it.”

• →Augustine of Hippo Ep. 102.31–32, in response to a point raised by Porphyry: “…to pass over the great size of the monsters of the sea, which scientists have reported, who could not guess how many human beings could be contained in the vault of a belly enclosed by those ribs that were displayed in a public square in Carthage and were quite familiar to the people? Who could not imagine the large opening of that mouth, which was like a door to that cavern? Or was the clothing, as our friend put it, perhaps an impediment to Jonah’s being swallowed unharmed, as if he had to squeeze himself through narrow passages, when he was in fact hurled through the air and thus received in the belly of the beast before he could be injured by its teeth?…But these people really find it something incredible in the divine miracle that the heat of the belly, by which food is digested, could have been tempered so that it would preserve a man’s life. How much more incredible, then, would they find it that those three men cast into the furnace by the wicked king walked about in the middle of the fire uninjured!”

Interestingly, others focus on the whale’s spitting Jonah out onto dry land. Here the early commentators assert that the events took place, but admonish the reader not to subject them to human reason:

• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. 2:10 “It would, in fact, be a mark of extreme folly, after such extraordinary things happened to him, and most of all his deliverance from the sea monster, to pry into the prophet’s egress from the sea monster, and to think that one could grasp it by human reasoning and explain how it happened in human terms.”

• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. “And let no one be senselessly curious about (polupragmoneitô) how the whale vomited him forth, for when God wills, everything is possible; nor let anyone be excessively concerned as to the kind of shore that God led him out upon, for this is also [a trait] of those who are excessively curious (tôn agan perittôn). But let all who are pious be satisfied with the teaching of the Spirit” (PG 81:1733B).

The Typology of Jonah's Experience in the Great Fish

Patristic writers, led by Christ’s references to Jonah (Mt 12:39–41; 16:4; Lk 11:29–30,32), see Jonah’s three days in the fish as a prefiguration of Christ’s burial and resurrection. This is perhaps the single most commented upon feature of the book of Jonah in the Church Fathers.

Representative Examples

• →Augustine of Hippo Ep. 102.34 “Just as, then, Jonah went from the ship into the belly of the whale, so too Christ went from the tree into the tomb or into the depth of death. And just as Jonah did this for those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ did this for those who are tossed about in this world.” 

• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 2:3 “And above all, as a type of the master (despotou) Christ, who spent three days and nights in the heart of the earth, he himself rightly (eikotôs) says that he had been in the belly (koilia) of Hades…the one who tasted true death said he would be in the belly (koilia) of the earth three days and three nights, but the one under the shadow of death calls the belly of the sea-monster the belly of Hades.” It is noteworthy that Theodoret seems to have modified Mt 12:40 (from kardia tês gês to koilia tês gês) in order to strengthen the connection between Jonah and Christ (PG 81:1729C–D).

• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 repeatedly describes Jonah’s time in the fish as a burial, which is the principle way in which Jonah prefigures Christ. This is perhaps most clearly stated in section 35, where Jacob first describes Jonah as “representing” (ṣwr) the Son (Bedjan 1910, 4:422.15; cf. ibid., 4:414.11); a few lines later he says that by being in the whale, Jonah is “being buried” (qbr) into the heart of the earth (ibid., 4:422.17). According to Jacob, Jonah, though buried, was not corruptible (dᵉlâ mētḥabal), and in this he prefigures Christ, who did not suffer corruption in death (dᵉlâ mētḥabal; ibid., 4:414.5, 11). Thus, Jacob indicates that this burial in the fish typifies Christ’s path to the tomb (tētpašaq wāt; cf. ibid., 4:422.18) and concludes that Jonah’s burial in the great fish was engraved (mētramšâ wāt) onto that of Christ (ibid., 4:423.8).

A Well-Worn Typological Path

Already in the 4^th c. B.C., this typological interpretation was so ubiquitous that Jerome did not feel the need to include it in his comments on the text. Yet, it continued to be commented upon through the end of the patristic era, as the writings of Maximus the Confessor show.

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 2:1 “The Lord explains the mystery of this passage in the Gospel, and it is superfluous to say either the same thing or something else, rather than what he himself who suffered has explained.”

• →Maximus the Confessor Quaest. Thal. 64.27 “Jonah remained for three days in the belly of the whale, it is obvious that this mystery, as a figure, would manifest the truth in a completely new way, which nonetheless follows the figure, namely, that the Lord spent three days and nights in the heart of the earth” (cf. Constas 2018, 509).

Jonah: Not a Perfect Type

A few patristic authors stress the need to be discerning in presenting Jonah as a type of Christ, since much of the prophet’s behavior does not prefigure Christ’s. Christ’s willingness to embrace his passion is typically presented as something that breaks down the typological relationship with Jonah, who, although eventually willing to die for the sailors, initially fled from God.

• →Cyril of Jerusalem Cat. illum. 14.7 “Though Jonah fled, not knowing what was to come, Jesus came willingly, to grant repentance for salvation…Jonah was cast into the belly of a great fish, but Christ of his own will descended to the abode of the invisible fish of death.”

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. Preface “Christ even underwent death willingly; he remained in the heart of the earth three days and three nights, came to life again, later went to Galilee, and gave orders for the beginning of the preaching to the nations.”

The Distinctiveness of Jonah’s Sign

Some patristic authors present Jonah’s prefiguration of Christ as unique and singularly important, most likely because of Christ’s reference to the sign of Jonah in Mt 12:40–41.

• →Ps.-Tertullian Jona 143–152 employs hyper-realistic description to emphasize that in the whale (cetus) Jonah became intimately acquainted with death before witnessing God’s victory over it, while also explaining that he thus typified Christ: “…his sails the intestines of the fish / Inspired with breath ferine; himself, shut in; / By waters, yet untouched; in the sea’s heart, / And yet beyond its reach; ’mid wrecks of fleets / Half-eaten, and men’s carcasses dissolved / In putrid disintegrity: in life / Learning the process of his death— / To be a sign hereafter of the Lord— / A witness was he (in his very self), / Not of destruction, but of death’s repulse.”

• →Augustine of Hippo Enarr. Ps. 65(66):3 observes that “One can find a parallel of any other miracle that the Lord performed in the prophets, that is why when the Lord was asked for a sign he gives them the sign of Jonah,” which Augustine describes as “a unique sign, one proper to himself, one that would take place in himself alone.” He then further explains that “What the whale was for Jonah, the underworld was for the Lord; and so he drew their attention to this unique sign, this sign proper to himself, this most powerful of all signs. It is a mightier deed to come to life after being dead than not to have died.”

• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 is also quite creative in his illustration of how Jonah is a type of Christ; a personification of “Mystery” (rā’zâ) speaks to Jonah and invites him to cooperate with God by becoming a type (tūpsâ) of Christ: “Mystery called to him, ‘Go down and touch the depths, for your Lord will come and go down to touch the depths of Sheol and he will empty it. Go down to the deepest part and become the type of the son of the living one who goes down into the whirlpool of death like a diver’” (Bedjan 1910, 4:413.20–21). For Jacob, it is because Jonah did so that he became the prophet who most closely prefigured Jesus Christ; this leads Jacob to describe mémrâ 122 as “exalted above us” (rām hû menan) because it concerns Jonah’s Christological prefiguration (ibid., 4:423.15).

1:17b–2:1 the innards An Inspiring Place In Christian reception of the text, the ambiguity of the phrase “innards of the fish” is on full display (Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:17b–2:1).

Syriac Patristic Tradition: Meditations on the Whale as a Womb

In the writings of a few Syriac Fathers, Jonah’s time in the belly of the sea-monster is styled as a return to the womb.

• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 42.14–27 offers an extended, fanciful meditation on Jonah’s time in the belly of the whale wherein Ephrem compares Jonah’s natural conception in his mother’s womb with his unnatural conception in the belly of the whale. Ephrem points out that in the former “a woman endowed with speech conceived him” as a fetus who could not speak, while in the latter “a speechless whale conceived him” as a man endowed with speech. In this way, Ephrem depicts Jonah’s ordeal in the whale as a period of prophetic gestation; there he learned to plead earnestly to God, and once he was given birth by being spewed forth on the land, he immediately carried out his prophetic mission.
• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 describes Jonah’s being swallowed by the great fish as a return to the womb. However, Jacob goes so far as to categorize it as a miraculous conception that prefigures Jesus’ conception in the Virgin Mary (Bedjan 1910, 4:418.7–8).
• →Narsai Hom. briefly mentions that “The (Divine) Symbol kept him in the proper place of fetuses within wombs” (rēmzâ naṭrah bᵉṭekkᵉsâ dᵉ‘ullâ bᵉgaw karsātâ; Mingana 1905, 1:141).

The Great Fish Was a Holy Place

• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 43.30–31, drawing inspiration from the mention of the Temple in Jon 2:4,7, asks: “Who has seen a priest in a fish / who offered a prayer to his God? / A pure temple the fish became for him, / and the mouth of Jonah [became] a censer.”
• →Cassiodorus Exp. Ps. 130(129):1 “The whale was a house of prayer for the prophet, a harbor for him when shipwrecked, a home amid the waves, a happy resource at a desperate time.”

A Pessimistic View: The Great Fish Was a Prison

• →Paulinus of Nola  Carm. 24.219-224 “Translated to the deep belly of the massive beast, [Jonah] was imprisoned in a living jail. He walked in the cavern of the whale’s body, a prisoner both captive and free.”
• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 2:10 “Thus also the admirable Jonah has handed on with an account (historiaᵢ) the flight, the punishment inflicted upon him, and the salvation given [to him]. And the kind master, after he received the prayer, led forth the prophet from the belly of the sea monster, as from a kind of prison” (heirktês; PG 81:1732D).

1:17–2:10 Jonah Swallowed by the Whale, Then Saved by Allah Islamic commentators point out that Jonah used to praise Allah in his youth; brought back to his childlike faith within the whale, Jonah glorifies God and is saved. Far from being a punishment, the whale brings Jonah back to his previous faith.

• →Qur’an 34.142–144 “And the fish swallowed him while he was blameworthy. And had he not been one of those who glorify (Allah), he would have tarried in its belly till the day when they are raised.”

• →Qur’an 21.87–88 “And remember Zun-nun when he departed in wrath: he imagined that We had no power over him! But he cried through the depths of darkness ‘There is no god but Thou! Glory to Thee ! I was indeed wrong!’ So We listened to him: and delivered him from distress: and thus do We deliver those who have faith.”

• →Qur’an 68.48–50 “So wait with patience for the Command of thy Lord, and be not like the Companion of the Fish—when he cried out in agony. Had not grace from his Lord reached him, he would indeed have been cast off on the naked shore, in disgrace. Thus did his Lord choose him and make him of the company of the Righteous.”

Many exegetes, following Jewish and Christian commentators, insist that the whale symbolizes a womb from which Jonah is reborn. Ibn ‘Arabî (†1240) notes that Jonah has two births since the verse states that Jonah is released onto the beach as weak as a little child. Other Sufis likewise compare the whale’s womb to the mother’s womb (cf. Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1). 

Islam considers Jonah to be the perfect example of repentance. A hadith specifies that Muhammad said that if one uses Jonah’s Quranic prayer, he will be answered.

1:17–2:1; 2:10 Where Did the "Whale" Come From? The usual translation of “fish” as “whale” is in fact all but expected.

• Etymologically, the English “whale” from Old English hwæl is related to the Latin squalus, a kind of large sea-fish, via the Proto-Indo-European *(s)kʷálos (→Harper OED).
• The entry point may have been Mt 12:40, wherein V renders the Greek têᵢ koiliaᵢ tou kêtous as in ventre ceti (“the belly of a whale”), though in the Latin of Jerome’s time, cetus—the Latin analogue of kêtos—could likewise denote any large fish or sea-monster.
• According to the →OED, whale (“whall”) was used to denote the “great fish” as early as the 10^th-c. Lindisfarne Gospels.
• →WYC has a “a greet fisch” swallow Jonah, but at Mt 12:40, Jesus says that “Jonas was in the wombe of a whal.”
• Likewise →TYN has “greate fyshe” in Jon 1:17, but opts for “whale” when rendering kêtos in Mt 12:40.

2:9f; 4:3f Mur88 Paragraph Demarcations

Paragraph Demarcations in Jonah

Closed paragraph demarcations (pārāšôt sᵉtûmôt) appear between:

• Jon 2:9 (M-2:10) and Jon 2:10 (M-2:11);
• Jon 4:3 and Jon 4:4.

An open paragraph demarcation (pārāšâ pᵉtûḥâ) appears between:

• Jon 2:10 (M-2:11) and Jon 3:1.

These major textual divisions correspond to the ancient textual demarcations represented by the copy of Jonah found at Wadi Murabba‘at with the following exceptions:

• An empty line between Jon 2:9 and Jon 2:10;
• A short gap between Jon 2:10 and Jon 3:1;
• One half-empty line and one full empty line between Jon 4:3 and Jon 4:4.

Such correspondence indicates the antiquity of the M textual tradition (→DJD II, 190–191; →Sasson 1990, 270–271).

Literary Significance

One possible interpretation of these demarcations is that they correspond to ancient perceptions of the plot's development:

• Jon 1:1–2:9 (M-1:1–2:10) portrays Jonah’s insubordination, descent, and restoration;
• Jon 2:10–4:3 (M-2:11–4:3) conveys Jonah’s lateral movement, preaching, and impact;
• Jon 4:4–11 conveys Jonah’s stationary status as he “wrongly evaluates the drama he has witnessed” (→Sasson 1990, 271).

In addition, these demarcations highlight certain points within the story.

• The closed paragraph demarcations follow clearly identified poetic utterances of the prophet.
• As such, these closed demarcations indicate that the book reaches its zenith when the prophet who refused his mission finally preaches (Jon 3:4).
• The open demarcation suggests that a minor transition in the narrative has taken place when Jonah, now ready to accept his mission, is expelled from the sea-monster onto the beach and makes his way to Nineveh.

Given this pattern, the reader might expect the book to conclude with a denouement showing that Jonah has fully converted; instead, however, it ends with an unanswered question posed by none other than God!

2:6ab the roots of the mountains; the bars of the earth Vocabulary Rooted in Ancient Cosmology

Roots of the Mountains

The term qeṣeb is not very common in M, and its meaning here is somewhat obscure; thus the phrase qiṣbé hārîm is somewhat elusive.

Fortunately, the phrase also occurs in the Hebrew of Ben Sira, which reads (Sir 16:19):

• ’p qṣby hrym wyswdy tbl bhbyṭw ’lyhm r‘š yr‘šw (“even the roots of the mountains and the foundations of the world will shudder and quake when God looks at them”; →Beentjes 2006, 46). 

In the context of this wisdom poem, it seems that the qṣby hrym are in a parallel relationship with the wyswdy tbl (“the foundations of the world”): thus it seems that the phrase denotes a cosmological aspect of the mountains. Hence “roots” or “extremities” are possible explanations.

• Jb 38:6 refers to a similar feature of the earth (“upon what were its pedestals [’ădānêhā] sunk?”) that helps to fill out the cosmological picture. 

The furthest extremities of the earth and mountains extend far below the surface of the earth and are sunk into some unknown substance. The fact that Job immediately goes on to describe the sea (Jb 38:8–11) implies that these pedestals are in fact sunk into a subterranean sea (→Clines 2016, 173–175).

It is thus possible to hypothesize that Jon 2:6 envisions the roots of the mountains as extending into a deep, primordial sea, which is why the sea-monster is able to take him down to the depths of the cosmos (Ancient Texts Jon 2:1–9; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10). 

Bars of the Earth

• The term bᵉrî^aḥ (“bar”) most often refers to a part of a door or gate used to secure it against entry (cf. Dt 3:5; Jgs 16:3; 2Chr 8:5; Ps 147:13; Jer 49:31; Neh 3:3,6,13).
• In some cases, especially in poetic and prophetic texts, the term seems to stand in for the gate as a whole (e.g., Jer 51:30; Lam 2:9).
• While the term ’ereṣ is usually used in reference to the “earth” in a general sense, it also seems to refer specifically to Sheol in a few places (1Sm 28:13; Ps 71:20; 106:17; Is 29:4).

If the above observations are taken into consideration, then it may be concluded that the phrase “bars of the earth” in Jon 2:6 is a poetic reference to the gates of underworld, which is actually beneath the sea and even the deep abyss (cf. Jb 28:14,22; Vocabulary Jon 1:5a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:5e). Placed on Jonah’s lips, it amplifies his description of the peril he experienced in the belly of the great fish: it is as though he has been imprisoned in Sheol (Christian Tradition Jon 2:2–6; Christian Tradition Jon 2:3a).

2:6c from the pit Synonym of Sheol Regarding the noun šaḥat:

• The literal meaning is a “pit,” i.e., a trap for wild animals, from which even the strongest cannot escape (Ez 19:4).
• Most often the word is used as a synonym for Sheol; in turn, “to descend to the pit” (Jb 33:24) and “to see the pit” (Ps 16:10) are images depicting the fate of a dying person.

2:5b seaweed Intertextual Characterization of Jonah as a Prophet Throughout the Bible, there are several figures that are comparable to Jonah, such as Abraham, who bargains with God to save Sodom and Gomorrah. Two or three major prophetic types present themselves for comparison.

Is He Like Moses?

In the depths of the sea, sûp threatens to strangle Jonah. “Seaweed” is a natural translation for sûp, which can refer to any water plants (Vocabulary Jon 2:5b). Poetry, however, allows for deeper readings, multivalence, and allusions to be imported from outside of the text. By choosing the word sûp, the author subtly alludes to the crossing of the Sea of Reeds (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:5b). These echoes should inspire reflection on the relationship between Jonah and the Exodus. Likewise Jonah’s dispositions and actions should be examined in light of Israel’s prophet par excellence, Moses. Like Jonah, Moses does not want to accept God’s mission, he argues with God, and he reluctantly becomes a prophet. Whereas Moses was argumentative, Jonah does not actually speak with God until the end of the story. Like the Egyptians, Jonah is brought to the bottom of the sea, but unlike them, he is spared. Finally, both stories ultimately concern God’s care for the salvation of his chosen people, achieved through the mediating work of his prophets. In the Exodus, this care is focused on the Hebrews; whereas in Jonah, God desires to call all of humanity to repentance.

Like Elijah or Elisha?

Though similar, Jonah compares unfavorably with Elijah and Elisha. See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f.

2:1–9 Thanksgiving Prayer with a Twist

Sitz im Leben

The prayer of thanksgiving is usually linked to the sacrifice of thanksgiving; it is sung by worshippers and believers just before the offering (Jon 2:9). See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:1–9.

Generic Features

This poem is a mosaic of Psalm-texts, constructed along the conventional pattern of thanksgiving psalms, that exhibits a five-part structure (cf. →Stuart 1987, 472):

vv. 2-7: Description of Sufferings Undergone

• Introduction to the psalm (Jon 2:2).
• Description of past distresses (Jon 2:3–6a).
• Reference to the rescue God provided (Jon 2:6b).
• Appeal to God for help (Jon 2:7).

vv. 8-10: Account of Deliverance

• Vow of praise before the thanksgiving sacrifice (Jon 2:8–9).

Specific Elements

Rescued but Still Asking for Help

Contrary to the usual order of a thanksgiving prayer, Jonah acknowledges God’s salvation (Jon 2:6b) before entreating God’s aid (Jon 2:7). Jonah thanks God for deliverance (from drowning), but, according to the narrative, he still needs to be saved from the fish (cf. Suggestions for Reading Jon 2:1–9).

Thanksgiving within Persisting Oppression?

It seems that Jonah presumes that YHWH’s salvation has already come (Jon 2:6–7), but he is actually freed from the fish several verses later (Jon 2:10). Unlike a psalm of complaint—usually prayed amidst ongoing oppression—the prayer of thanksgiving is usually sung once the danger has passed.

Prolepsis?

The use of past-tense verbs in vv. 6–7 (already noted as problematic in G and V; cf. Comparison of Versions Jon 2:6c) could be interpreted as anticipating Jonah’s salvation from the fish. Thereby a prayer of thanksgiving could be inserted without amending verb forms.

Sources and Further Reading

See “Individual Thanksgiving Songs” in →Gunkel 1933, §7 (English trans. in Nogalski 1998, 199–221); Erhard Gerstenberger, “Psalms” in →Hayes 1974, 202–205; and →Limburg 1993, 64–66.

2:2a And he said Greek Parallel: Prayer of a Woman Cast into the Sea (Simonides' "Prayer of Danae")

• →Dionysius of Halicarnassus Comp. 26 cites a poem wherein Danae prays amidst distress in the sea: “And when, in the carved ark lying, / She felt it through darkness drifting / Before the drear wind’s sighing / And the great sea-ridges lifting, / She shuddered with terror, she brake into weeping, / And she folded her arms round Perseus sleeping; / And ‘Oh my baby,’ she moaned, ‘for my lot / Of anguish!—but thou, thou carest not / … / Would hearken my words—nay, nay, my dear, / Hear them not thou! / Sleep, little one, sleep; / And slumber thou, unrestful deep! / Sleep, measureless wrongs; let the past suffice: / And oh, may a new day’s dawn arise / On thy counsels, Zeus! Change them now! / But if aught be presumptuous in this my prayer, / If aught, O Father, of sin be there, / Forgive it thou.’” 

2:1 innards : M | V S: womb

• M: the meaning of the Hebrew mē‘îm is multivalent (cf. Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:17b–2:1).

V and S preserve something of that multivalence:

• V: although Jerome’s translation, de utero piscis, may be understood as either the “womb of the fish” or the “belly of the fish,” it seems that he intends to convey the ambiguous gender of the fish present in M (Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10; in Jon 2:1 it is feminine). By contrast, Jerome has in ventre piscis (“in the belly of the fish”) at Jon 1:17 [= V-2:1], where the fish is male in M.
• S renders M with the noun m‘ayyā, which has a similar semantic range as its Hebrew cognate; it can refer to the inner organs generally, the intestines (S-2Sm 20:10), or the womb (S-Gn 25:23), depending on the context.

While V is content to mark the fish’s ambiguous gender subtly, the question of the fish’s gender inspired much speculation in the Jewish tradition (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17; 2:1,10; Visual Arts Jon 1:17–2:1; 2:10). Similarly, Syriac exegesis made much use of the multivalence of m‘ayyā (Christian Tradition Jon 1:17b–2:1). 

2:2b my distress Aramaic Spatial Semantics The noun "trouble" (‘āqtâ) in some Aramaic dialects means “narrowness,” possibly closer to the Hebrew “distress” (ṣārâ), which also contains the idea of narrowness.

2:2c the belly of Sheol A Unique Metaphor in G The phrase “belly of Sheol” only appears in Jonah. In M and S, the phrases “innards of the fish” (Jon 1:17-2:1) and “belly of Sheol” (Jon 2:2) are expressed by different words for “belly” (Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1). G, however, employs the same term in all occasions: koilia, meaning “womb” or “stomach.” Similarly, L uses venter in reference to both the belly of the fish and the “belly” of hell (infernus) (Jon 1:17; 2:2); however, L employs utero in Jon 2:1, presumably to mark the change in grammatical gender from male to female in M (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:1; Literary Devices Jon 2:2c).

2:6c And you raised : M | G: And let…be raised | V: And you will raise — Jonah Is Still Not Safe Whereas M abruptly passes from Jonah’s experience of death to a prolepsis of salvation already come, by artful use of the wayyiqtol, G and V convey that Jonah still awaits his salvation. The imperative anabêtô (“let it be raised”) in Jon 2:6 (G-2:7) and the optative elthoi (“may it come”) in Jon 2:7 (G-2:8) make it clear that as long as Jonah is in the belly of the monster, he is not yet safe. V also renders the same Hebrew verbs in the future tense: sublevabis (“you will raise”) in V-2:7, and ut veniat…oratio mea (“so that my prayer might come”) in V-2:8. See also Literary Genre Jon 2:1–9.

2:5b seaweed TYPOLOGY Allusion to the Crossing of the Sea of Reeds? Nearly every instance of sûp in the Hebrew Bible refers to the Red Sea or the Sea of Reeds. Both the use of sûp and the frequent use of the phrase “dry land” in Jonah draw the reader to connect Jonah’s story with the Israelites’ miraculous passage through the Sea of Reeds in the Exodus (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10).

• In Ex 2:5, the reeds play a role in saving Moses, and later the Sea of Reeds helps save the Israelites and destroy the Egyptians (Ex 15:4).
• In Jon 2:5, the reference to sûp seems to indicate that the prophet is about to participate in similar events.

2:5a waters enveloped me An Echo in Qumran's Hodayot (Thanksgiving Hymns)

• →1QH^a 14:22–24 “[I am] like a sailor in a ship—in the raging sea, its waves and torrents roar over me, a whirlwind [without a] lull for taking breath, without tracks which direct the path over the surface of the sea” (→DJD XL, 197).

2:6c my life from the pit Descent to the Pit in Qumran’s Hodayot

• →1QH^a 16:29 “And with the dead my spirit hides, because my life has gone down to the pit” (→Martínez and Watson 1992, 347; →DJD XL, 224).

2:1–9 From the Biblical Prayer of Jonah to Jewish and Christian Prayers

‘Amidah of Yom Kippur

• →b. Ta‘an. 15a "For the sixth blessing he recites: ‘He Who answered Jonah from within the innards of the fish’ (see Jon 2:1–3:1), He will answer you and hear the sound of your cry on this day. Blessed are You, Lord, Who answers in a time of trouble. For the conclusion of the seventh blessing, which is actually the sixth additional blessing, as the first blessing listed here is an expanded version of a regular weekday blessing, he recites: ‘He Who answered David and Solomon his son in Jerusalem’ (see 1Kgs 8:12–53), He will answer you and hear the sound of your cry on this day. Blessed are You, Lord, Who has mercy on the Land." 

The Synagogal Rite of Kol Nidré

The citation of Jon 2:9 in the midrashic retellings of the Jonah story is reminiscent of kol nidré ("all vows"), the prayer of entrance of Yom Kippur.

This Aramaic declaration is recited in the synagogue before the beginning of the evening service on every Yom Kippur. Strictly speaking, it is not a prayer, although commonly spoken of as if it were. This dry legal formula and its ceremonial accompaniment have been charged with emotional undertones.

• →Machzor "All vows, renunciations, promises, obligations, oaths, taken rashly, from this Day of Atonement till the next, may we attain it in peace, we regret them in advance. May we be absolved of them, may we be released from them, may they be null and void and of no effect. May they not be binding upon us. Such vow shall not be considered vows: such renunciations, no renunciations; and such oaths, no oaths" (ben Zion 1959, 258).

In this ceremony, all vows—except for legally ratified ones, such as contracts—taken since the previous Yom Kippur are cancelled. This prayer has sometimes elicited resentment or anger from non-Jews, who construe it as "religious" trickery that justifies the breaking of promises. From the standpoint of faith, however, this prayer serves to acknowledge both the power of the spoken word and the fallibility of human judgment. More prosaically, it discourages the infraction of the third commandment.

Book of Odes

Some Greek and Syriac biblical manuscripts contain the Book of Odes, a collection of canticles drawn from both the OT and NT. This was most likely a liturgical collection, as these canticles are still employed in the liturgies of East and West today. Jonah's prayer forms part of this collection. In →Rahlfs 2006, Odes 6:1–7 corresponds to Jon 2:2–9.

Syriac Morning Prayer: Emulating Jonah's Prayer of Repentance

The episode is referenced in the Saphro (Morning prayer) for Wednesday in the Syriac Church:

• →Shimo “God, who heard the prayer of the son of Mattai in the sea and commanded the mighty fish and in three days it cast him up; hear our prayer and be reconciled with us and respond in your mercy to our requests; and if we have angered you, there are those who will reconcile you with us, the just who died for love of you.”

• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 45.1 is perhaps the first to refer to Jonah simply with the liturgical epithet “son of Mattai.”

This weekly prayer reflects Jonah’s continued importance, especially as an example of repentance, in the tradition of Syriac Christianity.

2:2c the belly of Sheol

• →y. Ta‘an. 2:9 “It is written ‘And he said: I called out from my distress to the Lord, and He answered me…’ (Jon 2:2). There was no need to mention David and Shlomo and afterwards Jonah and Eliyahu, except in order to end with ‘who has mercy on the land.’ On the seventh: They said in the name of Sumchus, ‘Blessed is He who brings low the lofty.’ This makes sense regarding Shlomo, of whom it is written, ‘I have surely built You a house to dwell in…’ (1Kgs 8:13), but why David? Because he attempted to count Israel. Rabbi Abahu said: It is written, ‘When I call, answer me, O God of my righteousness; in my distress You have relieved me…’ (Ps 4:1). David said before the Holy One, ‘Master of the World! Every distress into which I came, You opened it out for me. I entered into the distress of Bat Sheva, You brought me Shlomo. I entered into the distress of counting Israel, You brought me the Holy Temple.’”

• →b. ‘Erub. 19a “She’ol, as it is written: ‘Out of the belly of the netherworld (šᵉ’ôl) I cried and You did hear my voice’ (Jon 2:2). Avadon, as it is written: ‘Shall Your steadfast love be reported in the grave or Your faithfulness in destruction (’ăbaddôn)?' (Ps 88:11). Be’er Shaḥat, as it is written: ‘For You will not abandon my soul to the netherworld; nor will You suffer Your pious one to see the pit (šāḥat)’ (Ps 16:10). And Bor Shaon and Tit HaYaven, as it is written: ‘He brought me up also out of the gruesome pit (bôr šā’ôn), out of the miry clay (ṭîṭ hayyāwēn)’ (Ps 40:2). And Tzalmavet, as it is written: ‘Such as sat in darkness and in the shadow of death (ṣalmāwet), bound in affliction and iron’ (Ps 107:10). And with regard to Eretz Taḥtit, i.e., the underworld, it is known by tradition that this is its name.”

• →Tanḥ. Vayikra 8.1 “And it showed him Gehinnom, as it is written, ‘From the belly of the pit I cried out; You heard my voice’ (Jon 2:2).”

2:1–9 Interpretations of Jonah's Prayer

Jonah's Prayer, a Model for the Faithful

The Patristic Period

• →Origen Or. 13.3–4; 14.2,4; 16.3 focuses on prayer’s ability to deliver one from moral and physical evil, which then becomes a means of conversion: “Who is there who has escaped the belly of the whale that swallows up every fugitive from God but has been subdued by Jesus our Savior, that does not become like Jonah a saint filled with the Holy Spirit?” Likewise Jonah’s prayer both demonstrates the power of prayer for others and prefigures Christ’s own prayer.
• →Aphrahat Dem. 4.1,8,12 invokes Jonah’s example in a few places. He begins by speaking of the need for “pure prayer” (ṣᵉlûtâ dᵉkîtâ)—i.e., prayer that is not self-seeking, uttered out of a pure mind and heart— because it can become a “pure offering” (qûrbānâ dakyâ) to God. He directs the reader to the example of the righteous of the OT in a kind of litany. Not surprisingly, he includes an allusion to Jonah along with Daniel and the three youths: “and it caused one to ascend from the pit, and it saved one from the fire, and it delivered one from the sea” (wᵉhî ’asqat men gûbâ wᵉpelṭat men nûrâ wᵉšawzbat men yamâ). Later in the demonstration he elaborates on this by saying that Jonah’s prayer “pierced the depths, overcame the waves, overpowered the storms, pierced the cloud, flew through the air and opened the heaven, and came near before the throne of the Most High by means of Gabriel who brings prayers before God. The depths threw up the prophetic man, and the fish brought forth Jonah to the dry land.”
• →John Chrysostom Exp. Ps. 4:4: Chrysostom thus responds to the question, “what is the meaning of ‘he has worked wonders for him’ (Ps 4:4)?” “He has made remarkable, notable, conspicuous, obvious the one devoted to him.” He then clarifies more precisely what this means by turning to examples of God’s servants in the Bible; the current running through them is that God’s protection and deliverance are the wonders he works for his servants who pray to him. In this context, he mentions Jonah: “This happened with the three young men, with the lions, with the great fish and Jonah, and in every case he saves not simply people of all sorts but his holy one.”
• →Augustine of Hippo Enarr. Ps. 130(129):1, commenting on the verse “out of the depths I cry to you, O Lord; Lord, hear my voice”: “Each one of us must assess what a deep place he or she is in; we must take stock of the depth from which we have to cry to the Lord. Jonah cried out from a very deep place indeed, from the belly of a whale. He was not only submerged under the waves but even hidden in the stomach of a sea monster, yet neither that vast body nor the water blocked his prayer or prevented it from reaching God. Not even the beast’s vitals could smother the voice of a man who prayed. It broke down all obstacles, burst its way through, and arrived at God’s ears.”
• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 2:7 describes Jonah as a positive example of prayer inasmuch as he turned to God in the face of hardship and suffering: “He cried aloud to him, note, and longed for his assistance; aware as he was of his clemency and the abundance of his power, he addressed supplication to him, begging for his life to be rescued from death and corruption. It is therefore a wonderful and praiseworthy thing to avoid depression in hardship, and rather to appease the Lord with entreaty and supplication, and seek from him repeal of the trouble and relief from misfortune.” Cyril goes on to describe Jonah’s prayer as a song of praise, as sweet smelling incense, and as a spiritual sacrifice.
• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 2:10, in a somewhat different vein, points to Jonah’s prayer and deliverance as a didactic illustration of God’s mercy, which he recorded for the benefit of later generations: “The blessed Jonah fulfilled [these things] and handed on in writing (suggraphêᵢ) the things that happened, so that not only the people then but also those born later might learn. As also the blessed David has made his own sin a public record (anagrapton), both proclaiming God’s kindness (philanthrôpian) and showing the remedy of repentance (ta pharmaka tês metanoias) to sinners” (PG 81:1732D).

The Reformation Period

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. “Grant, Almighty God, that as thou hast once given us such an evidence of thy infinite power in thy servant Jonah, whose mind, when he was almost sunk down into hell, thou hadst yet raised up to thyself, and hadst so supported with firm constancy, that he ceased not to pray and to call on thee—O grant, that in the trials by which we must be daily exercised, we may raise upwards our minds to thee, and never cease to think that thou art near us; and that when the signs of thy wrath appear, and when our sins thrust themselves before our eyes, to drive us to despair, may we still constantly struggle, and never surrender the hope of thy mercy, until having finished all our contests, we may at length freely and fully give thanks to thee, and praise thy infinite goodness, such as we daily experience that being conducted through continual trials, we may at last come into that blessed rest which is laid up for us in heaven, through Christ one Lord. Amen.”
• →Fisher Comm. Pen. Ps. 130(129) “Every sinner breaking the commandment of God goeth away from Him, and draweth backward into many great and perilous deep dangers, falling down more and more toward the horrible pit of Hell: which thing Holy Scripture hath shewed figuratively in the story of the prophet Jonas, describing certain degrees and orders of his descensions…if in all these tribulations [Jonah] had not shortly remembered Almighty God and been succoured by His help, could not have escaped; but, anon as he had been digested in that great fish’s belly, should have been voided out from him in the manner of dung, and so slipped down into the bottom of the great sea” (Phillimore 1915, 2:56–57; cf. Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1). 

Jonah’s Exemplary Prayer Prefigures Christ

While Jonah’s prayer is considered a model for Christians, it is likewise considered a prefiguration of aspects of Christ’s life, passion, death, and resurrection.

• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 repeatedly describes Jonah’s being swallowed by the fish as a burial, which is the principle way that Jonah prefigures Christ (Bedjan 1910, 4:413.19–21, 414.3–6, 422.17–18, 423.8).
• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 43.29–33 “The servant bore the Symbols of his Lord / in his conception and his birth and in his raising to life / … / and the mouth of Jonah [became] a censer. / The smell of incense rose up from within the abyss / to the High One Who sits in the highest heaven. / His Savior came down; He became the key of the mouth. / Silence delivered the Herald of words.”
• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 2:2–3 suggests that the content of Jonah’s prayer prefigures that of the Lord’s prayer: “If Jonah refers to the Lord, and he reveals the Savior’s passion from the fact that he spent three days and nights in the belly of a whale, then his prayer ought to be a type of the Lord’s prayer.”
• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 notes that because Jonah is the only one ever to have prayed after being buried, his prayer prefigures that of Christ’s passion and death, which he understands as a kind of atoning prayer (Bedjan 1910, 4:423.12–13).

→Gloss. ord. likewise employs a Christological allegory, likening portions of Jonah’s prayer with that of Jesus’ work of salvation.

• “I called out” (v. 2b): “He remembers that he is in the heart of the sea—that is, in the middle of storms, and among the bitter waters ‘tempted in all things without sin’ (Hb 4:15)…in [Christ] every temptation lost its power, so that in him those who were accustomed to be imperiled might be freed through his conquering.”
• “you cast me” (v. 3a): “I who took on the form of a slave, having imitated the frailty of man…so that through this I might lead the human race back to you [i.e., the Father].”
• “your holy Temple” (vv. 4b,7b): “Just as the temple of the Father is the Son, so also the temple of the Son is the Father, about whom he himself said, ‘I went forth from the Father and have come into the world’ (Jn 16:28).” See also Jn 17:5.
• “Waters enveloped me” (v. 5a): “In Christ as a man, the soul was the principal part and, as it were, the head, which descended toward the lower regions where the souls of men were being held under the power of the devil.”
• “so that my prayer might come” (v. 7b): “And he prays because he is the high priest, so that his prayer might ascend to God so that in his own body the people might be freed.”
• “what I have vowed” (v. 9b): “In the passion he vowed all of us to the Father, so that none of those whom the Father had given him might perish. He promised for the salvation of all. Let us not make him a liar; let us be pure so that he might offer us to the Father.”

2:2–6 Where Is Jonah? Several verses in Jonah’s prayer from the belly of the whale seem to imply that he has died or is dying. He cries to God from the belly of šᵉ’ôl (G: haᵢdês; V: infernus), the realm of the dead, and he appears to be drowning or to have drowned. Has he died? Where has he gone—is he damned, dead, or just poetic?

• →Cassiodorus Exp. Ps. 130(129):1 “The word for depth (profundum) stands for porro fundum, the far bottom, whose lowest levels are wholly submerged. From here the prophet cried to the Lord so that he could be more easily heard…Finally from these depths, Jonah, who was set in the whale’s belly and had entered hell alive, spoke to the Lord with silent vehemence…What an outstandingly and wholly glorious repentance, a humility that experiences no fall, grief that rejoices people’s hearts, tears that water the soul! Indeed this depth, which conveys us to heaven, has no inkling of hell.”
• →Maximus the Confessor Quaest. Thal. 64.27 interprets Jon 2:2–6 in light of Jb 10:21–22 and argues that “it should be obvious that this is the depth of the final, ultimate abyss,” i.e., Hades.

2:9b I will pay [as] recompense (S) MORALS An Act of Religion How can Jonah recompense God for his salvation? Jonah cannot literally repay God for his salvation; rather, the fulfillment of his vows serves as an analogical recompense to God.

• →Aquinas ST II-II 81.2 resp. “Now it is evident that to render anyone his due has the aspect of good, since by rendering a person his due, one becomes suitably proportioned to him, through being ordered to him in a becoming manner. But order comes under the aspect of good, just as mode and species, according to Augustine (→Nat. bon. 3). Since then it belongs to religion to pay due honor to someone, namely, to God, it is evident that religion is a virtue.” Thus inasmuch as a human being pays honor as is worthy of God, a human being can, in a human way, recompense God.
• In S, the phrase “what I have vowed, I will pay [as] recompense to the Lord” suggests that the speaker owes something to God; the vows are to be paid to God in response to the gratuitous salvation already received (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:9b).

2:1–9 Pastiche in the Form of a "Noble Canticle" In Moby Dick, before Fr. Mapple begins his sermon, the congregation sings a hymn.

• →Melville Moby Dick (ch. 9) “The ribs and terrors in the whale, / Arched over me a dismal gloom, / While all God’s sun-lit waves rolled by, / And lift me deepening down to doom. -- I saw the opening maw of hell, / With endless pains and sorrows there; / Which none but they that feel can tell— / Oh, I was plunging to despair. -- In black distress, I called my God, / When I could scarce believe him mine, / He bowed his ear to my complaints— / No more the whale did me confine. -- With speed he flew to my relief, / As on a radiant dolphin borne; / Awful, yet bright, as lightning shone / The face of my Deliverer God. -- My song for ever shall record / That terrible, that joyful hour; / I give the glory to my God, / His all the mercy and the power. /...What a noble thing is that canticle in the fish’s belly! How billow-like and boisterously grand! We feel the floods surging over us; we sound with him to the kelpy bottom of the waters; sea-weed and all the slime of the sea is about us!” (44–45).

2:10 Plot Device Leads to Theological Reflection A short transitional verse conveys an important development in the plot: Jonah emerges from the depths of the sea and from the belly of the fish.

The reader cannot say if God responds to Jonah’s prayer or if, more simply, it was God’s intention all along to return Jonah to shore. In the history of reception, however, this verse is deep with meaning. There is reflection on the sign of Jonah, mentioned in the NT (Christian Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10); commentators draw out Christological interpretations on the themes of death and resurrection, rebirth and baptism. Similarly, a great deal of art regarding Jonah revolves around those themes (Visual Arts Jon 2:10). Finally, verses from the first two chapters have made their way into various liturgical settings (Liturgies Jon 2:10).

The reader does not know if Jonah has changed as a result of his experience, but Jonah is alive and thus able to receive God’s commission a second time.

2:10 Example of the Lord's Saving Wonders

3 Maccabees

• →3 Macc. 6.7–9 "When, through the slanderous accusations brought against him out of envy, Daniel was thrown to the lions underground as food for beasts, you brought him up to the light unscathed. When Jonah was pining away unpitied in the belly of the monster of the deep, you, Father, restored him uninjured to all his household. So now, you who hate insolence, full of mercy, protector of all, manifest yourself swiftly to those of the people of Israel who are outrageously treated by the abominable and lawless heathen” (→OTP  2:526).

Here, Jonah is invoked as an exemplary recipient of God’s mercy toward Israel. Notably this passage references Jonah’s restoration to his household, which must depend on an early extra-biblical tradition about Jonah.

The Context

In his prayer for deliverance from the persecutions of Ptolemy IV Philopator in →3 Macc. 6.1–15, the priest Eleazar enumerates five mighty acts of the Lord God’s mercy:

• His destruction of Pharaoh and his host of chariots ( →3 Macc. 6.4);
• His demolition of Sennacherib after the siege of Jerusalem ( →3 Macc. 6.5);
• His sending of miraculous dew to save “the three friends” (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) from the fiery furnace in the land of Babylon (→3 Macc. 6.6);
• His rescue of Daniel from the lion’s den (→3 Macc. 6.7);
• Jonah’s deliverance from the belly of the sea-monster (→3 Macc. 6.8).

In each of these acts, God showed mercy to his people. Eleazar thus calls upon the Lord to act again by rescuing his people from Greek persecution (cf. Sir 36:1–22). According to Eleazar’s prayer, God shows mercy in two ways: first, through destroying (apollumi / thrauô) Israel’s enemies, which is tantamount to protecting Israel; and second, through God’s miraculous protection of individuals whom he delivers from distress “unharmed” (apêmantos / asinês).

2b proclamation Hapax Legonomenon in M

• The word qᵉrî’â is a nominal form built off of the verb qr’ and is glossed as “proclamation” in the present translation.
• It is possible that the author invented this word in order to form an internal adjunct with the imperative q^erā’: “proclaim…the proclamation.”

1f RHETORIC Repetition and Change

Repetition

Jon 3:1 is a nearly verbatim repetition of Jon 1:1.

• Just as in Jonah’s first call (Jon 1:2), he is directed to get up (qûm), go (lēk), and cry out (ûq^erā’).

Change

Although the vocabulary is very similar, there are some differences:

• There is no dagesh lene in “word” (d^ebar).

• Jonah’s patronym is omitted.

• The call comes a “second time” (šēnît).

Greater than the difference in vocabulary is the change of behavior:

• In Jon 3:3 one finds the expected response of a prophet to the word of YHWH; instead of fleeing, Jonah got up (wayyāqām) and went (wayyēlek) to Nineveh.

3a according to the word of YHWH MOTIF "Expected" Prophetic Response Finally, after a second calling, Jonah responds as one might anticipate a prophet to respond—affirmatively. Among prior examples of prophets making positive response to a divine mandate, two examples stand out:

• 2Kgs 14:25: Jonah had demonstrated readiness to undertake his prophetic task which he did with competence.
• 1Kgs 17:5–10: Elijah, a model prophet for Jonah, manifests a ready response to God's call.

The sole reference to Jonah outside of the book that bears his name shows he had already manifested willingness to respond to God as had his prophetic forbearer Elijah. Yet, Jonah's unwillingness to respond affirmatively to God's call on this occasion (Jon 1:3) is also not without significant precedent (e.g., Moses in Ex 3–4). Thus, both in his flight from and acceptance of his prophetic mandate, Jonah appears as a paradigmatic biblical prophet.

1–10 Use in Lectionary

• →RML: Wednesday, 1^st Week in Lent, Years I and II.
• →RML: Tuesday, Week 27 in Year I.
• →Miss. Rom. 1570: Monday after Passion Sunday.
• →Miss. Rom. 1570: Holy Saturday, 10^th Reading.

1 second time Remarkable Proof of God's Grace

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "There is here set before us a remarkable proof of God’s grace—that he was pleased to bestow on Jonah his former dignity and honor. He was indeed unworthy of the common light, but God not only restored him to life, but favored him again with the office and honor of a prophet."

1–10 The Exception of Nineveh Nineveh’s conversion is an exceptional case in the Qur’an. Most of the people to whom God sends his prophets do not convert and are destroyed by God (see for instance the stories of Luth, Nawa, Salih, and Hud). 

• →Qur’an 10.96–98 "Those against whom the word of thy Lord has been verified would not believe even if every Sign was brought unto them until they see (for themselves) the Penalty Grievous. Why was there not a single township (among those We warned) which believed so its Faith should have profited it except the people of Jonah? When they believed, We removed from them the Penalty of Ignominy in the life of the Present and permitted them to enjoy (their life) for a while."
• →Qur’an 37.147–148 "And We sent him (on a mission) to a hundred thousand (men) or more. And they believed. So We permitted them to enjoy (their life) for a while."

A hadith clarifies that Muhammad understood the expression “or more” to signify 20,000 people, thus harmonizing the quranic figure with the biblical text (see Jon 4:11).

3b a great city belonging to God Multivalent Prepositional Phrase The Hebrew expression ‘îr-gᵉdôlâ lē’lōhîm (lit. “a city-of great/large to-g/God[s]”) is ambiguous. The challenge to understand it lies in coordinating its numerous semantic and grammatical variables.

Semantics of the Elements

Only the word “city” (‘îr) is unambiguous. The other words are problematic.

• The term “great/large” (gᵉdôlâ) can indicate physical size or it can refer to a non-physical quality, such as the esteem with which the city is held.

• The preposition “to” (lᵉ) connotes various spatial, temporal, ideological, and procedural relationships, including means, designation (of a group or one among a group), attribution, possession (belonging to), distribution, and dedication.

• For the word “g/God(s),” see Literary Devices Jon 3:3b,5a,8ff. It is also often suggested that ’ĕlōhîm works as a kind of superlative. Such a reading is often based on comparison to other OT passages (Ps 36:6 [M-36:7]; Ps 80:10 [M-80:11]; Sg 8:6): “an exceedingly large city” (cf. →Kimchi Comm.; →Waltke and O'Connor 1990, 268; Jewish Tradition Jon 3:3b). The context may support this if the phrase “a walk of three days” is understood to be an independent clarification of the expression.

Semantics of Their Syntactic Combination

When the semantics of the words and preposition combine, the ambiguity multiplies.

Large or Great?

• In light of the fact that greatness may refer to another, non-physical, attribute, the use of the term ’ĕlōhîm may simply be a means of referring to one or more attribute(s) associated with the divine (e.g., ineffability; cf. “totally unusual among humans,” →Wolff 1986, 144). Thus, concepts like the supernatural or incomparability come to the fore.

• Alternatively, the “walk of three days” may be part of the entire expression: thus the phrase may signify an immeasurable scope (i.e., “a city so large that it took three days to walk through it”; cf. →Price and Nida 1978, 52–53).

Since “large” tends to convey scale alone, whereas “great” has ambiguous connotations, the latter is to be preferred.

Circumlocution: God, the Owner

• Assuming that the plural term ’ĕlōhîm refers to the definite God (Yhwh) of the prophet, then the grammar suggests that the God possesses a great city. This relation is expressed in Hebrew by circumlocution using the preposition lᵉ-; hence, “a great city belonging to God” (→Tucker 2006, 67–68; cf. Literary Devices Jon 3:3b,5a,8ff; History of Translations Jon 3:3b).

3b,5b great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

5–8 Cultural Resonances of the Fast: Mourning and Fasting in Ancient Israel

Practices

• The rending of garments, donning of sackcloth or specific attire for mourning (2Kgs 19:1; Ps 30:11; Jer 6:26);
• putting ashes or earth on one’s head (Jo 7:6; Lam 2:10);
• fasting (2Sm 1:2–12; Neh 1:4).

Duration

• Deuteronomy recounts a thirty-day mourning period following Moses’ death (Dt 34:8).

• A seven-day period of mourning is observed following Saul's and his sons’ deaths (1Sm 31:12–13).

• Job and his friends observe seven days of ritual silence and contemplation (Jb 2:13).

Goals

Fasting can serve functions other than mourning:

• political intrigue (1Kgs 21:8–14);

• petition (Dn 9:3–5);

• penitence (1Sm 7:3–14; Jl 2:12);

• preparation for a journey (Ezra 8:21–23);

• preparation for battle (Jgs 20:24–28).

3b a journey of three days : M | G: a road journey of about three days

• In G, the preposition "about" (hôsei) in vv. 3b and 4a is a plus compared to M.
• The term mahălak is rendered with two words, poreias hodou, in v. 3b, but simply with poreian in the majority reading of v. 4a (there are several mss. that also include hodou in v. 4a, including the uncials A and Q, and minuscules 198, 233, 534, 544, 764; cf. →Ziegler 1984 ad loc.). 

From these observations, it is clear that the genitive phrase in G-v. 3b is a clarification that mahălak is an attribute of the city Nineveh, i.e., it is a city "of a journey of the road of about three days."   

5–10 Christian Rituals

Ramsho of Thursday

The repentance of the Ninevites is referenced as a positive example in the Ramsho (evening prayer) of Thursday in the Syriac Church:

• →Shimo "The Ninevites trembled at the voice of Jonah, the son of Mathai, and took refuge in repentance by watching and fasting and prayer; and by tears and groans the sentence of judgment was annulled which Jonah had pronounced concerning the destruction of Nineveh; blessed be the Compassionate one who turned them from evil to good."

The invocation of the repentance of the Ninevites every week at the Thursday Ramsho demonstrates the ongoing significance of this story for Syriac Christians, a fact which is also reflected by their continued observance of the Rogation of the Ninevites.

Rogation of the Ninevites

The Rogation of the Ninevites (ba‘ûtâ d-ninwayé), also known as the Fast of the Ninevites, is a festival observed by many Christians who trace their heritage to Syriac Christianity, including the Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Chaldean Catholic Church, and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.

Celebration

• The festival is observed from Monday to Wednesday during the third week before Lent.

• The observance of the festival comprises three days of fasting followed by the reception of the Eucharist (qûrbānâ).

Origins

• Though there is some discrepancy about the precise date of its origin, the Rogation seems to be traceable to the early to mid-7^th century, when a severe plague broke out in Nineveh and the surrounding area.

• In response to the people’s suffering, the local bishop enjoined all the Christians of Nineveh to fast in imitation of the Ninevites, who had been delivered from divine wrath through their repentance and fasting.

• The first Maphrian of the Church of the East, Marutha of Tikrit (†649), proclaimed an annual fast in order to commemorate both the events of the Book of Jonah and of the cessation of the plague. This gradually developed into the practice known as the Rogation of the Ninevites. See →Fiey 1965, 497–99; →Walker 2011, 309.

• Preparatory fasting in the weeks just before Lent is generally common in Christianity, as can be seen in the Western season of Septuagesima and the Byzantine analogue, Meatfare week and Cheesefare week.

Texts

• Narsai’s mémrâ on Jonah may have been used during the observance of the Rogation; it is found in Alphonse Mingana’s edition with the subheading “and it is spoken on the Rogation (bᵉbā‘ūtâ, lit. 'petition') of the Ninevites,” and is followed by another heading indicating that it is to be recited as a responsive chant (‘unnāyâ) (→Narsai Hom. in Mingana 1905, 1:134).

• Gewargis Warda Arbillaya (ca. 13^th c.) composed several ‘anyūthâ (“antiphons”) for the Rogation, one of which addresses a crisis of leadership in the Church by playing on the double meaning of ba‘ûtâ: “Our Lord heed the rogation (ba‘ûtâ) of the Babylonians and Assyrians (’atūrāy) now that Church leadership is distressed and confused. Our Lord heed the request (ba‘ûtâ) of our destitute country, I glorify your Godliness and ask for your forgiveness” (→Malko 2002, 84).

• There are also turgamé, or liturgical prose homilies, composed for use during the Rogation that are preserved in a 16^th c. ms. held at the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library in Collegeville MN (CCM 00425; →Scher 1908).

Further Reading: History of Syriac Christianity in Nineveh

• →Stronach and Lumsden 1992; →Fiey 1993; →Fiey 2004; →Simpson 2005.

4b overturned The Prophecy's Dual Meaning The rabbis emphasize that the conversion of the Ninevites did not nullify Jonah’s prophecy. The root hpk can mean “overturned,” either as in “destroyed” or “transformed.”

• →Luzzatto Derek 3.4.7 “It is further possible for a prophet to comprehend the truth of his prophecy yet not to perceive all of the truths which may be included in it. For example, Jonah’s prophecy. He was told Nineveh shall be ‘overturned.’ This statement actually contained two true meanings; one, the punishment due them as a result of their sins; and second, what was revealed before God that would actually occur, that they would be transformed from evil to good. However, if only the punishment had been implied by the prophecy, then God would have revealed to His prophets, and especially to Jonah, that He was later relenting, and that a new decree had supplanted the first.”

• Likewise, →b. Sanh. 89b cites the double-meaning of “overturn” to explain why God did not inform Jonah that the Ninevites were forgiven, in apparent contradiction to Am 3:7.

• →Kimchi Comm. suggests that the word “overturned” is a reference to the destruction of Sodom (Gn 19:25; Dt 29:23), since the sins of the two cities were similar.

Cf. Christian Tradition Jon 3:4b,10b; 4:1 .

3b great city Jonah's Account of Nineveh's Size Is True

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "Some toil much in untying a knot, which at last is no knot at all; for it seems to them strange that one city should be in compass about thirty leagues according to our measure. When they conceive this as being impossible, then they invent some means to avoid the difficulty—that no one could visit the whole city so as to go through all the alleys, all the streets, and all the public places, except in three days…And if we believe profane writers, Nineveh must have been a great city, as Jonah declares here…We shall farther see about the end of the book that this city was large, and so populous, that there were there 120,000 children. If anyone receives not this testimony, let him feed on the lies of the devil. But since there were so many children there, what else can we say but that the circumference of the city was very great?"

4a called out Model for Preaching?

Confessional Polemic: Anabaptists Compare Zurich to Nineveh

Zwingli records an episode in which Anabaptists exhorted the people of Zurich to repent, comparing them to the Ninevites.

• →Zwingli Cat. "Then when they learned this in great swarms they came into the city, unbelted and girded with rope or osiers, and prophesied, as they called it, in the market place and squares. They filled the air with their cries about the old dragon, as they called me, and his heads, as they called the other ministers of the word. They also commended their justice and innocence to all, for they were about to depart. They boasted that already they hold all things in common, and threatened with extremes others unless they do the same. They went through the streets with portentous uproar, crying Woe! Woe! Woe to Zurich. Some imitated Jonah, and gave a truce of forty days to the city. What need of more? I should be more foolish than they were I even to name all their audacity" (Jackson 1901, 134–135). 

Moral Exhortation: Jonah Is Not Afraid

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "[Jonah] again proves the courage of his soul; for he did not creep in privately, as men are wont to do, advancing cautiously when dangers are apprehended. He says that he cried: then this freedom shows that Jonah was divested of all fear, and endued with such boldness of spirit, that he raised himself up above all the hindrances of the world. And we ought, in the meantime, to remember how disliked must have been his message: for he did not gently lead the Ninevites to God, but threatened them with destruction, and seemed to have given them no hope of pardon. Jonah might have thought that his voice, as one says, would have to return to his own throat, ‘Can I denounce ruin on this populous city, without being instantly crushed? Will not the first man that meets me stone me to death?’ Thus might Jonah have thought within himself. No fear was, however, able to prevent him from doing his duty as a faithful servant, for he had been evidently strengthened by the Lord."

4b Forty days more, and Nineveh will be overturned More to the Message Than Meets the Eye Early commentators, including Cyril of Alexandria, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodoret of Cyrus, assert that Jonah’s message must have been longer and speculate about its content. The Antiochene commentators deemed it historically implausible that such a short message would have such a great effect. Cyril sees in the shortness of Jonah’s reported speech a concern for accuracy. Jerome, by contrast, does not feel the need to provide any explanation.

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 3:3-4 “…while the prophets often suggest the manner of their mission, they do not altogether deliver to us all the words that came to them from God, nor the words from them to God…Do you see that he did not state most things, including what was said without our knowledge by God and to God, alike through the Holy Spirit? It is therefore logical to attribute truth to the statements of the saints; they would hardly be guilty of falsehood, enriched as they were with the spirit of truth.”
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. “…on entering the city the prophet began to go round it part by part, and spent about a day preaching and saying ‘Three days more, and Nineveh will be destroyed,’ and as much else as he could say to those present in each part of the city in sequence by way of instructing the listeners…once the prophet began to do his preaching in a part of the city, the word passed on to everyone with great rapidity; everyone adopted an unquestioning response to what was said, and in the grip of deep fear they believed what was said.” He then explains that this must have been how events unfolded since “they could never have believed in God on the basis of this remark alone, from a completely unknown foreigner threatening them with destruction and adding nothing further, not even letting the listeners know by whom he was sent. Rather, it is obvious he also mentioned God.”
• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 3:3–4 “He did not immediately walk through the city, but was going around through assemblies, marketplaces, streets and alleys, preaching ‘Three days more, and Nineveh will be overturned'” (PG 81:1733B).

4b Forty days How Long Did the Ninevites Repent and Fast? The different readings of the Hebrew and Greek, i.e., forty days vs. three days, are reflected in the interpretations of various patristic authors, sometimes giving them a different nuance or emphasis.

• →Justin Martyr Dial. 107.2 “And he [i.e., Christ] showed that your generation was more evil and adulterous than that of the Ninevites, who, when Jonah, after being cast up on shore from the belly of the whale on the third day, warned them that they would all perish within three days, announced a fast…believing that God is merciful and benevolent toward all those who avoid sin.” 
• →Jerome Comm. Jon. "The number three, which is recorded by the Septuagint, is not appropriate to repentance, and I am quite amazed at why it was translated this way, since in the Hebrew there is no commonality between the letters, syllables, accents or the word. For the Hebrews express ‘three’ as shelosh, and ‘forty’ as ’arbayim. Moreover, a prophet who was sent from Judea to the Assyrians on such a lengthy journey would have demanded a penance worthy of his preaching, so that the old putrid wounds could be cured by a dressing placed upon them for a long time."
• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. first notes that Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion all read “forty” along with the Hebrew and Syriac, and then concludes, “this number has the probability. For at one time, Jonah wandered throughout the whole city for three days, and at another time the Ninevites, offering to God that toilsome repentance (tên metanoian tên epiponon), had the benefit of salvation from him. And at yet another time he awaited the outcome of his prophecy while sitting before the gates. Therefore, it seems to me that the forty days is the most credible. And it is likely that the Seventy had put down the number that agrees with the others” (PG 81:1733C–D).
• →Augustine of Hippo Quaest. Hept. 1.169 mentions the Hebrew text of Jon 3:4b when giving biblical justifications for the practice of fasting during Lent: “It is not without purpose that forty days of fasting were established, during which Moses and Elijah and the Lord himself fasted, and the Church calls for a special forty-day observance of fasting. So too the Hebrew text attests what was written about the Ninevites in the prophet Jonah, ‘Forty days and Nineveh shall be destroyed’ (Jon 3:4), so that for this many days, suitable for the humbling of penitents, they may be understood to have wept for their sins by their fasts and to have obtained God’s mercy."
• →Augustine of Hippo Serm. 114B.2 follows the Greek text (likely received via the Vetus Latina): “What a short time three days is! Yet with so little time left them they didn’t despair of God’s mercy; they believed that even three days of lamentation and tears would be enough to win his indulgence.”
• →John Chrysostom Hom. Gen. 24.18 also highlights the brevity of three days of repentance: “That in fact is what happened in the case of the Ninevites; when they heard that ‘after three days Ninevi will be demolished,’ not only did they not lose heart but they responded to the warning and practiced such abstinence from evil and gave evidence of scrupulous confession…without being sure that they would escape punishment." 

The Glossa is aware of both readings and gives interpretations of both.

• →Gloss. ord. "According to the Septuagint, ‘Yet three days and Nineveh will be destroyed.’ The same Christ is signified, whether by ‘forty days’ or by ‘three days.’ It is by ‘forty,’ of course, because he brought to conclusion forty days with his disciples and ascended into heaven; by ‘three days’ because he rose again on the third day."
• →Gloss. ord. "A period of forty days is fitting for sinners for the sake of penitence and fasting and prayer and sackcloth and ashes and perseverance in begging for mercy. According to this number, Moses and Elijah and Christ himself fasted. This number is indicated for us for preparing our souls to eat the body of Christ."

4b,10b; 4:1 overturned + relented + displeased + enraged — Was Jonah a Liar? As with the rabbinical commentators mentioned above, patristic exegetes were concerned to absolve Jonah from any charge of falsehood (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 3:4b). 

Was God’s Message Untrue?

• →Augustine of Hippo Serm. 361.20 “But what are we to say? That the prophet lied? If you understand it literally, he does seem to have said something untrue; if you understand it in a spiritual way, what the prophet said did happen. Yes, Nineveh was overthrown. Consider what Nineveh was, and see how it was overthrown…It has been overthrown of course because it is no longer constituted by those previous activities.”
• →Augustine of Hippo Enarr. Ps. 51(50):8 “...the prophet’s prediction was verified. Consider what Nineveh was, and how it was overthrown. It was overthrown in respect of its evil ways, and built up in goodness.”
• →John Chrysostom Stat. 5.5 “Was Nineveh destroyed? Quite the contrary. It arose and became more glorious, and all this intervening time has not effaced its glory. And we all yet celebrate it and marvel at it, that subsequently it has become a most safe harbor to all who sin, not allowing them to sink into despair but calling all to repentance, both by what it did and by what it gained from the providence of God, persuading us never to despair of our salvation.”
• →Maximus the Confessor Quaest. Thal. 64.28 Q: “How is God being truthful when He gives the order for the destruction of the city but then does not destroy it?” A: “God in truth both destroys and saves the same city: the former, by making it desist from its error; the latter, by bringing about its acquisition of true knowledge.”
• →Gloss. ord. “According to Jerome: Nineveh, which was evil and well built, was overturned not with respect to its standing fortifications and buildings. The city was overturned in the destruction of its customs. And although what those men had feared did not happen, when Jonah prophesied the future, what he had predicted at God’s command did happen after all.”

Was Jonah Justified in Becoming Angry?

A number of commentators hold that Jonah becomes angry in Jon 4, not because he expected the city’s destruction, but because he feared that he would acquire the reputation of a false prophet (Jewish Tradition Jon 4:1).

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 4:1–3 “It was not because the city had escaped destruction—the attitude of a wicked and envious man, unbecoming a saint—but because he gave the impression of being a liar and a braggart, idly alarming them, speaking his own mind and not at all what came from the mouth of the Lord.”
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. 4:1 “…he was alarmed at the thought that he was likely to gain the reputation for being a sham and charlatan for threatening that destruction would occur in three days, whereas nothing happened.”
• →Ephrem Hymn. virg.: On the contrary, Ephrem would likely disagree with the above commentators: Jonah was not justified in his anger (cf. Christian Tradition Jon 4:1–5). 

5–10 The Repentance of the Ninevites in Patristic Exhortation In the writings of many Church Fathers, the repentance of the Ninevites serves as both an historical illustration of God’s mercy and an example of repentance for the faithful.

The Ninevites Illustrate God’s Mercy

In a few places, the Fathers use the example of the Ninevites as pedagogical example of how God’s mercy is manifested and experienced:

• →1 Clem. 7: After affirming that the Blood of Christ won for the whole world the “grace of repentance” (metanoias charin), Clement explains that “the master” (ho despotês; cf. G-Jon 4:3) provides opportunities for repentance in every generation for those who desire to turn to him (→1 Clem. 7.4–5). He then holds up the examples of Noah (7.6) and Jonah (7.7), about whom he says “Jonah preached destruction (katastrophên) to the Ninevites, and those who repented from their sins appeased (exilasanto) God and those who beseeched (hiketeusantes) [God] received salvation, even though they were strangers to God.”
• →John Chrysostom Paenit. 5.4 “Why do you, God, foretell the sufferings that you will inflict upon Nineveh? So that I will not do what I announced. This is why he threatened with hell: so he would not lead anyone away to hell.” He expresses the same thought in a homily about Genesis (→John Chrysostom Hom. Gen. 24.18) where he compares the Ninevites’ repentance after three days to the seven-day warning that Noah received before the flood. 
• →John Chrysostom Laz. 6.1 refers to God’s mercy towards the Ninevites when consoling his congregation after an earthquake: “He shook us but He did not wish to destroy us. If He had wished to destroy us, He would not have shaken us. But since He did not wish to destroy us, the earthquake came in advance like a herald, forewarning everyone of the anger of God, in order that we might be improved by fear and prevent actual retribution. He has done this even for foreign nations. ‘Yet three days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown.’ Why do You not overthrow the city? You threaten to destroy it, but why do You not destroy it? ‘Because I do not wish to destroy, for this very reason I threaten.’” 
• →Augustine of Hippo Enarr. Ps. 51(50):8 uses the example of the Ninevites to illustrate the hidden ways of God’s mercy: “At this uncertain prospect the Ninevites did penance; for even after the prophet’s threats…they debated among themselves the possibility of asking for mercy saying to each other, ‘Who knows whether God may change his sentence for the better, and have mercy?’ (Jon 3:9). It was uncertain, as they acknowledged by asking, ‘Who knows?’ All the same, they did penance with uncertain prospects, and deserved certain mercy.” 

The Ninevites’ Exemplary Status

Many patristic authors point to the fact that the Ninevites trusted in God’s mercy even though (1) they only had three days to repent; and (2) they were not fully acquainted with God.

• →Paulinus of Nola  Carm. 26.92-93 “The power of prayers and the healing efficacy of tears in the presence of God our Father is the lesson we must learn from Nineveh saved by its grief.”

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 4:9 “There was no response to their repentance; rather, God met their questioning with silence. Thus [the outcome of] their repentance is left uncertain, that being doubtful of their salvation, they may repent more vehemently and know the mercy, patience and compassion of God even more. 

• →John Chrysostom Hom. Gen. 1.7 “Animals as well as human beings were included in the fast, so that all living things would abstain from evil practices. This total response won the favor of the Lord of all.”

• →John Chrysostom Paenit.  5.4 “Why does he establish the appointed time to be only a period of three days? So that you may learn even the virtue of the barbarians…and for you to marvel at the philanthropy of God, who was satisfied with three days of repentance for so many transgressions; and furthermore, so you will not sink into despair, although you have innumerable sins.” 

• →John Chrysostom Stat. 5.6 “They do not know the issue, and yet they do not neglect repentance. They are unacquainted with the method of the lovingkindness of God, and they are changed amid uncertainty...They had not read the prophets or heard the patriarchs, or benefited by counsel, or partaken of instruction, nor had they persuaded themselves that they should altogether propitiate God by repentance. For the threat did not contain this. But they doubted and hesitated about this, and yet they repented with all carefulness. What account then shall we give, when these, who had no good hopes held out to them as to the issue, gave evidence of such a change?”

• →Gloss. ord. "A beautiful sequence: God commands the prophet; the prophet preaches to the city; the men believe first; when they preach fasting, people of every age are clothed with sackcloth. The men do not preach sackcloth but only fasting, but those to whom penitence is commanded add sackcloth so that their empty belly and their mournful clothing might more boldly beseech God.
• →Luther Lect. Jon. 3:9 "It is, in the first place, a marvelous thing that such a powerful city and king became alarmed so soon, that they stand in such great awe of God, that they humble themselves so deeply before one man’s single sermon, and that they do not pause to ponder why just they should stand condemned as sinners before all other cities in the world. How obstinately Sodom and Gomorrah withstood Lot! How obdurately Pharaoh resisted Moses and Aaron! How hardened Jerusalem remained against Christ and the apostles! How furiously Rome raged and raved against all Christians! How princes and bishops still defy the Gospel! Indeed the whole world is composed of nothing but knaves, yes devils, when compared with these people of Nineveh. The latter appear as pure angels next to the former."

Why Can’t You Be More Like the Ninevites?

• →Aphrahat Dem. 7.9 “See, my beloved, how great advantage there is when someone confesses and leaves his wrongdoing. And our God does not reject the penitent; the men of Nineveh were weighed down with their sins, but they received Jonah’s preaching when he preached ruin against them, and they repented and God had mercy on them.”

• →John Chrysostom Hom. Gen. 24.18 “When we are on the verge of something that can cause us pain, then we are likely to humble ourselves and give evidence of change for the better. That is in fact what happened in the case of the Ninevites; when they heard that ‘after three days Nineveh will be demolished,’ not only did they not lose heart but they responded to the warning and practiced such abstinence from evil and gave evidence of scrupulous confession…without being sure that they would escape punishment.” 

• →Gregory of Nazianzus Or. 16.14 “Let us sow in tears, so that we may reap in joy. Let us show ourselves people of Nineveh, not of Sodom. Let us amend our wickedness, lest we be consumed with it. Let us listen to the preaching of Jonah, lest we be overwhelmed by fire and brimstone.”

• →Gregory of Nazianzus Or. 39.17 “Yet I know a fifth [baptism], that of tears; but it is more laborious, received by one who each night washes his bed and his couch with tears, whose bruises also stink with wickedness, who goes in mourning with a sad face, who imitates the turnaround of Manassas and the humiliation of the Ninevites that brought them mercy, who utters the words of the tax collector in the temple and is justified instead of the arrogant Pharisee, who bends down like the Canaanite woman and seeks compassion and crumbs, the food of a dog that is very hungry.”

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "Grant, Almighty God, that as there is so much timidity in us, that none of us is prepared to follow where thou mayest call us, we may be so instructed by the example of thy servant Jonah, as to obey thee in every thing, and that though Satan and the world may oppose us with all their terrors, we may yet be strengthened by a reliance on thy power and protection, which thou hast promised to us, and may go on in the course of our vocation, and never turn aside, but thus contend against all the hindrances of this world, until we reach that celestial kingdom, where we shall enjoy thee and Christ thy only begotten Son, who is our strength and our salvation: and may thy Spirit quicken us, and strengthen all our faculties, that we may obey thee, and that at length thy name may be glorified in us, and that we may finally become partakers of that glory to which thou invites us through Christ our Lord. Amen."

The Ninevites (Gentiles) Compared to the Israelites (Jews)

The Israelites compare unfavorably to the Ninevites, who repented within a short amount of time. Some Fathers likewise see in Jonah a prefiguration of the Jewish people (Christian Tradition Jon 4:1ff; see also Jewish Tradition Jon 1:3a; Jewish Tradition Jon 4:11b).

• →Justin Martyr Dial. 108.1: Christ “pleaded with you [i.e., the Jews] to repent of your sins at least after his resurrection from the dead, and to lament before God as did the Ninevites that your nation and city might not be seized and destroyed, as it has been.”
• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 1:1–2 “At the same time, however, what happened was by way of condemnation of Israel; they were convicted of being forward, unresponsive, paying little heed to the laws of God. After all, at a single prophet’s preaching, the Ninevites were instantly brought around to a sense of obligation to repent, despite suffering from extreme deception, whereas those others set at naught Moses and prophets, and spurned Christ himself, the Savior of us all, despite his supporting his teachings with miracles, through which they should have been convinced quite easily that he was God by nature and became man to save the whole earth under heaven, and them before all others."

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 3:5 “While this was the situation of the Ninevites, however, Israel in its stupidity did not obey the Law, mocking the provisions of Moses and setting no store by the statements of the prophets. Why do I make this claim? They also turned killers of the Lord, not even believing Christ himself, Savior of us all. The position of the Ninevites was therefore better…In other words, the people of foreign tongue, unintelligible and of obscure accents—namely, the Ninevites—respected the oracles and without delay moved to repent, whereas contentious Israel did not respect them.”

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 3:5 "Nineveh believed, and Israel perseveres in unbelief. The uncircumcision has believed, and the circumcision remains unfaithful."

• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. Prol. "What happened in the case of blessed Jonah, the prophet, was similar: when Jews were unbelieving and reluctant to heed his prophecies, God had him go instead to the nations."
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. Prol. “The result was that they showed from the events of that time that in this fashion at the coming of Christ the Lord he would by his grace cause all the nations to take a turn for the better, even if Jews chose not to respond to the teaching in piety…He realized also that this occurred as a sign of what would happen with Christ the Lord, and the same thing would take place to a far greater degree, when the nations were called to divine grace and moved en masse to godliness, whereas Jews remained unresponsive and resistant to Christ the Lord, despite having in their midst from the beginning prophecy and teaching about him.”
• →Luther Lect. Jon. "I hold that none but saints inhabited the city and that Jonah rightly called it a ‘city of God.’ Show me another city in the wide world comparable to Nineveh, even if it were the holy city Jerusalem. Just look at this city! Jonah preached only a day’s journey, and not every citizen heard him; yet they were all converted. Neither Christ nor all the apostles and prophets were ever able to bring Jerusalem to that point by means of their words and their miracles, though they ministered to it for a long time and preached from one end of the city to the other."

The Importance of Concrete Forms of Repentance: Fasting

• →Aphrahat Dem. 3.7 “…the sons of Nineveh observed a pure fast…they ordered a continuous fast and an urgent supplication as they sat on sackcloth and ashes. They put on sackcloth instead of their luxurious clothes; children were withheld from the breasts of their mothers; sheep and cattle from pasture…The fast was pure; the fast which the Ninevites observed was accepted, when they returned from their evil ways and from plundering which is in their hands. The pure fast which the Ninevites observed was well pleasing.”

• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 47.1–10 likens the Ninevites’ repentance, especially their fasting, to the cultivation of fruit for which God hungers. When this exchange takes place, it results in God’s and the Ninevites’ mutual joy.

• →Ambrose of Milan Ep. 44 “One who does not fast is uncovered and naked and exposed to wounds. Finally, if Adam had uncovered himself with fasting, he would not have become naked. Nineveh freed itself from death by fasting.”

• →John Chrysostom Paenit. 5.4 “Like a heavenly power overseeing Nineveh’s charge, fasting snatched the city from these gates of death and returned Nineveh to life.”

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 3:8–9 “Now the Ninevites were very wise, devoting themselves to an abandonment of depravity by means of fasting, this being the single authentic and blameless form of repentance.”

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "Whenever then Scripture mentions fasting, and ashes, and sackcloth, we must bear in mind that these things are set before us as the outward signs of repentance which when not genuine do nothing else but provoke the wrath of God; but when true, they are approved of God on account of the end in view, and not that they avail, of themselves, to pacify his wrath, or to expiate sins."

TYPOLOGY Nineveh Prefigures the Redemption of Humanity

• →Ephrem  Hymn. virg. 17.9 "Blessed are you, O Shechem, in which the True One disavowed His own words for the sake of your life: ‘Go not in the way of the pagans, nor into a Samaritan city’ (Mt 10:5). Blessed are you, like Nineveh, absolved by the Just One; He passed judgment but saved it. Jonah grieved over Nineveh’s repentance but in you our Lord rejoiced."
• →Maximus the Confessor Quaest. Thal. 64.12 “Inasmuch, then, as Nineveh is understood as our common human nature, or as the Church of the Gentiles, we see Jonah, who symbolizes the word of prophetic grace that is always preaching within it, and every day turning back to God those who are lost and wandering. If, on the other hand, we apply the understanding of Nineveh to the contemplation of each particular person, we would say that the great city is each and every soul, to which, in transgression, the Word of God is sent, preaching repentance unto life.” He goes on to make the following allegorical identifications: King = intellect; nobles = innate powers; men = impassioned thoughts; cattle = movements of desire in body; oxen = covetous movements of irascibility toward material objects; sheep = movements of its senses.

4b Nineveh will be overturned Prophetic Revelation and Knowledge

• →Aquinas ST IIa-IIae 171.6 ad. 2 “Sometimes, however, the prophetic revelation is an imprinted likeness of the Divine foreknowledge as knowing the order of causes to effects; and then at times the event is otherwise than foretold. Yet the prophecy does not cover a falsehood, for the meaning of the prophecy is that inferior causes, whether they be natural causes or human acts, are so disposed as to lead to such a result. On this way we are to understand the saying of Is 38:1: ‘Thou shalt die, and not live;’ in other words, ‘The disposition of thy body has a tendency to death': and the saying of Jon 3:4, ‘Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be destroyed,’ that is to say, ‘Its merits demand that it should be destroyed.’ God is said ‘to repent,’ metaphorically, inasmuch as He bears Himself after the manner of one who repents, by ‘changing His sentence, although He changes not His counsel.’”

6–10 Creation Repents and God Relents The Ninevites’ repentance moves spatially and socially upward where it is made official and universal by the king’s decree. At the king’s word, petition through fasting and mourning expands to the animals of Nineveh, who are introduced for the first time in the pericope. What is the point of including the animals? Is it an attempt at comic relief in the midst of a very serious situation? Although this scene is often highlighted in purposefully “comic” readings that present Jonah as a farce or satire of prophets (→Introduction §1.5), the humor of Jonah lies elsewhere.

Returning to the premise of our proposed thought-experiment, the element of the narrative that should surprise readers most is the rapid repentance of the Ninevites, who know what to do in response to Jonah’s declaration even though they do not receive any explicit directions from him. In this most-extreme scenario, even the king and his nobles respond positively to a word from God. Thus, this section epitomizes one of the most daring teachings of the Hebrew prophets: human repentance can move God to relent and change his mind (Literary Devices Jon 1:2 evil; Literary Devices Jon 3:8c,9a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:8c,9a).

Creation

The King

The king’s decree reminds readers of the captain’s command to Jonah to “Call out!” (Jon 1:6; Literary Devices Jon 1:2–3:8; Literary Devices Jon 3:7a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:6a). Likewise, the king’s comments on the nature of this repentance and his call for Nineveh’s inhabitants to turn “from the violence that is in their hands” (Jon 3:8) echoe the sailors’ concern that their hands would bear innocent blood should they hurl Jonah into the sea (Jon 1:13–14; Literary Devices Jon 3:8d; Comparison of Versions Jon 3:8d).

The Animals 

In line with similar parts of the Bible, the animals of Nineveh assume a prominent role in the narrative. We have already seen that both the weather and the “great fish” play an important role in Jonah’s narrative. In Jon 3:6–10, readers of the Hebrew will quickly hear echoes of Gn 1–3 in its use of such vocabulary as bᵉhēmôt and ’ādām (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:5,7; 4:11). That these non-human actors are active participants in creation further develops the Bible’s theology of creation (cf. Gn 1:20–25; Dt 5:12–15; Ex 20:8–11; Is 11:6–9). Throughout the Bible, creatures praise God, join in Shabbat, and partake of the eschaton. In fact, it is likely that early readers of this text did not find the mention of animals humorous. Why should we deride or belittle their participation in this repentance? Perhaps it is only from our highly—and, compared to the whole of human history, abnormally—urbanized lifestyles and perspectives, that such a role for animals appears odd and droll (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:5–8).

The City

The city’s response to Jonah’s message is nothing short of miraculous. They are moved to repentance not by certainty, but by the hope that God might relent. The Ninevites’ speedy response is often a welcome turn of events for readers who see themselves among their ranks (Christian Tradition Jon 3:5–10). At the same time, however, this typology has a Janus-like counterpart whereby Jonah typifies Israel’s recalcitrant response to Jesus and his expansion of the covenant to the Gentiles (Christian Tradition Jon 4:1ff); such an interpretation has all too frequently and wrongly been extrapolated from this portion of the tale.

God: Divine Repentance

Up to this point, readers have seen God’s responsiveness to human action. This is the first instance in the narrative in which God relents. God is not above changing his mind (Comparison of Versions Jon 3:9; Literary Devices Jon 3:10). This is not the God of the systematic theologian. Here, God seems to be in suspense and is genuinely gladdened when the Ninevites actually do repent.

9 God may turn and relent and turn away : M | G, V, S: Divergent Translations

Hebrew

• M: yāšûb wᵉniḥam hā’ĕlōhîm wᵉšāb.

Greek: An Economy of Words

• G: metanoêsei ho theos kai apostrepsei (“the god will change his mind and turn away”)—the translator renders the verbal hendiadys in M (yāšûb wᵉniḥam) with a single verb.

• In contrast to G, the Naḥal Ḥever Greek fragments, when reconstructed, read epistrepsei kai paraklêthêsetai ho theos kai epistrepsei, a word-for-word translation of M (cf. →Barthélemy 1992 ad loc.).

It seems this minus in G is best explained as a conscious decision intended both to achieve a smooth Greek translation and to avoid redundancy, since šwb occurs again in the second half of the verse. In G metanoeô always translates nḥm, with one exception: in Is 46:8 it renders the hip‘il of šwb.

Syriac: Focusing on the Ninevites

• S: metpᵉnē ’ᵉlāhā wᵉmarḥem ‘ᵉlayn wᵉmahpak (“God will turn back and have mercy on us and turn away”).

• S has two significant differences from M: first, S moves the subject, God, between the first two verbs; and second, S contains a plus, ‘ᵉlayn, which is a prepositional phrase that explicitly identifies the object of God’s hoped-for mercy, i.e., the Ninevites who are speaking. These two differences effectively transform the verbal hendiadys in M into two separate verbal clauses.

• Though Syriac has twb, a cognate of šwb, the translator of S opted instead to use pny, which reflects a marked tendency in S’s method of translation: of the more than 110 occurrences of the verb twb, none have God as the subject, while pny is used in several contexts to refer to God turning towards those whom he loves to save them (e.g., S-Dt 13:17; 30:9; Ps 6:4; 90:13; 126:1; Is 52:8; Na 2:2).
• The translator of S employs the cognate rḥm to render the second verb in M’s verbal hendiadys (i.e., nḥm). This usage too reflects that of S: the verb rḥm is used of God when he shows mercy to those he loves (e.g., S-Gn 43:29; Ps 30:10; Bar 3:2). However, the sense of S is somewhat different as compared to M, since S has a pa‘el participle (“have mercy”) whereas M has a nip‘al perfect (“relent”). This is related to the plus in S: since the participle is transitive, it governs an object.
• The final verb in S, an ’aphel participle, changes the sense of wᵉšāb in M. Though both have God as the subject, M is intransitive (God might turn away from his fierce anger), while S is transitive (God might turn his fierce anger away from the Ninevites).

Latin: Emphasizing the Power of Repentance

• V: convertatur et ignoscat Deus et revertatur (“God will turn back and forgive and turn away”).

• As compared to G and S, the translator of L has provided the closest word-for-word translation. L uses two verbs that correspond to those in the verbal hendiadys in M (yāšûb wᵉniḥam).

• There is some semantic distance between ignoscat (“forgive”) and niḥam (“relent” or “repent”). This could either be an interpretative translation or the result of the translator analyzing the verb as a pi‘el.
• The two occurrences of šwb (yāšûb, wᵉšāb) are translated by deponent verbs (converto and reverto), which are close synonyms of each other, thus preserving the semantic repetition of M, while introducing some variation.

9a Who knows?! MOTIF Changing God's Mind

Hope or Desperation?

Like the sailors (Jon 1:6), the king reacts by doing something to appease the deity. There is no certainty here, though. Rather, “Who knows?!” is an expression of hope or even desperation.

• The passage is reminiscent of the words and behavior of King David. When told by the prophet that his infant son will die, he mourns, sits on the ground, and says, “While the child was still alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, ‘Who knows whether the Lord will be gracious to me, that the child may live?’” (2Sm 12:22, RSV).

The responses of the sailors, the king, and David are very natural. Instead of accepting their fate as determined, they try to persuade God to relent.

God Relents from Punishing

• There are instances in which God’s mind is unchangeable: “For this the earth shall mourn, and the heavens above be black; for I have spoken, I have purposed; I have not relented nor will I turn back” (Jer 4:28, RSV). This would seem to illustrate that God’s just punishment is unavoidable. See also Ez 24:14; Zec 8:14.

• God does, however, relent from punishing Nineveh (Jon 3:10). The verb wayyinnāḥem (nip‘al, “to relent”) occurs more than thirty times, nearly all referring to God. See also Jl 2:13; Am 7:3,6.

• God sometimes relents from punishing, and even regrets previous decisions. For example, Micah prophesies that “because of you Zion shall be plowed as a field; Jerusalem shall become a heap of ruins, and the mountain of the house a wooded height” (Mi 3:12, RSV). When Hezekiah changes his ways, God relents from punishing Jerusalem. This incident is explicitly referenced as an example in Jer 26:18–19.

• Figures such as Abraham (Gn 18), Moses (Ex 32; 34; Nm 11; 14; 16; 21), Samuel (1Sm 7), and Ezra (Ezra 10) recognize, as Jonah did, that God is quick to forgive.

Because Nineveh is not overturned, some interpreters hold that Jonah is afraid of having given a false prophecy: this is the source of Jonah’s anger in the opening verses of Jon 4. Nonetheless, this interpretation is forgetful of the many instances in which God relents from punishing. It also fails to recognize that prophecy is not limited to true predictions of the future; the prophet’s role is to deliver God’s message regardless of the outcome (e.g., 1Kgs 22:12–15,22; 2Kgs 22:14–20; cf. Literary Devices Jon 3:10; Comparison of Versions Jon 3:9).  

6a the king of Nineveh The King's Identity

• According to →Yal. on Nach 550.3, the king was Osnapper (Ezra 4:10).
• →Rashi Comm., in turn, identifies him with Sennacherib.
• →Pirqe R. El. 43 identifies the king of Nineveh with the Pharaoh of the Exodus: “Know thou the power of repentance. Come and see from Pharaoh, king of Egypt, who rebelled most grievously against the Rock, the Most High, as it is said, ‘Who is the Lord, that I should hearken unto his voice?’ (Ex 5:2). In the same terms of speech in which he sinned, he repented, as it is said, ‘Who is like thee, O Lord, among the mighty?’ (Ex 15:11). The Holy One, blessed be He, delivered him from amongst the dead. Whence (do we know) that he died? Because it is said, ‘For now I had put forth my hand, and smitten thee’ (Ex 9:15). He went and ruled in Nineveh. The men of Nineveh were writing fraudulent deeds, and everyone robbed his neighbour, and they committed sodomy, and such-like wicked actions. When the Holy One, blessed be He, sent for Jonah, to prophesy against (the city) its destruction, Pharaoh hearkened and arose from his throne, rent his garments and clothed himself in sackcloth and ashes, and had a proclamation made to all his people, that all the people should fast for two days, and all who did these (wicked) things should be burnt by fire. What did they do? The men were on one side, and the women on the other, and their children were by themselves; all the clean animals were on one side, and their offspring were by themselves. The infants saw the breasts of their mothers, (and they wished) to have suck, and they wept. The mothers saw their children, (and they wished) to give them suck. By the merit of 4123 children, more than twelve hundred thousand men (were saved)…For forty years was the Holy One, blessed be He, slow to anger with them, corresponding to the forty days during which He had sent Jonah. After forty years they returned to their many evil deeds, more so than their former ones, and they were swallowed up like the dead, in the lowest Sheol, as it is said, ‘Out of the city of the dead they groan’ (Jb 24:12).” 

8a mightily Mightily or Hard-heartedly? The Talmud and certain rabbis understand bᵉḥāzᵉqâ in a more negative sense, whereby the Ninevites try to force God's compassion.

• →b. Ta‘an. 16a: The Ninevites "separated the animals from their young, and they said, 'Master of the Universe! If You wil not have mercy on us, we will not show mercy to these.'"
• Midrash Jonah "they held their infants heavenward and cried out to the Holy One, blessed be He: 'For the sake of these innocent babes who have never tasted sin, hear our prayers and cause us not to perish!'" (cited in →Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 126).

9a Who knows?! Tg. Influenced by Yom Kippur Jonah’s connection to Yom Kippur led the Targum’s translators to convey a more definite statement about God’s forgiveness:

• →Tg. Jon. "Whoever knows that he has guilt in his hands, let him turn from them, and from the Lord we will be pitied, and we will not be destroyed.”

7a he cried out Leading by Example

• →Augustine of Hippo Ep. 185.19 "A sovereign serves God one way as a man, another way as a king. He serves him as man by living according to faith. He serves him as king by exerting the necessary strength to sanction laws that command goodness and prohibit its opposite…Thus the king of the Ninevites served him by compelling the city to appease the Lord."

10b God relented Nineveh Not Destroyed but Exalted

• →Tertullian Marc. 4.10 "I see how the Ninevites obtained forgiveness of their sins from the Creator—not to say from Christ [by way of anticipation], even then, because from the beginning he was acting in the Father's name."
• →John Chrysostom  Stat. 5.5 "Was Nineveh destroyed? Quite the contrary. It arose and became more glorious, and all this intervening time has not effaced its glory. And we all yet celebrate it and marvel at it, that subsequently it has become a most safe harbor to all who sin, not allowing them to sink into despair but calling all to repentance, both by what it did and by what it gained from the providence of God, persuading us never to despair of our salvation."
• →Luther Lect. Jon. "This is a wonderfully sweet expression of the Divine Majesty; this is a very complete promise of the incomprehensible goodness and mercy of God. This shows how much God does not desire the death of a sinner; He desires rather that the sinner be converted and live."

6d sackcloth Coarse Clothes Are Appropriate for Penitents

• →Aquinas ST IIa-IIae 187.6 resp. “…coarseness of attire is sometimes a sign of sorrow: wherefore those who are beset with sorrow are wont to wear coarser clothes, just as on the other hand in times of festivity and joy they wear finer clothes. Hence penitents make use of coarse apparel, for example, the king who ‘was clothed with sackcloth’ (Jon 3:6), and Achab who ‘put hair-cloth upon his flesh’ (1Kgs 21:27).”