1:5c to make it lighter for them Explanatory Expansion

• →Tg. Jon.  "to make it lighter without it."

1:2 call out against it Specification of a Generic Term

• →Tg. Jon. "prophesy against it."

1:1ff God Surprises the Prophet; Jonah Surprises the Reader →Introduction to the Book of Jonah

An a/typical prophetic commission comes to a typical prophet characterizing Nineveh as a new Sodom. Will the prophet respond in the manner of Abraham and engage God? Will his response fit the readers' expectations for a prophet? In a book of surprises, the first is that a prophet is sent to Nineveh. The second is that he flees.  

An Unusual Prophetic Beginning

It is never announced that Jonah is a prophet, but the structure of the opening leaves no doubt. The story opens the way many stories about prophets open (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1 Now), with the commissioning of a task (Literary Genre Jon 1:1). The surprise, though, is the response of the prophet who, told to get up and go, gets up and flees.

Nineveh as a New Sodom

Nineveh, steeped in biblical intertexuality, is presented in overtly negative ways (esp. Nahum)  Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2; 3:2–7; 4:5,11. The subtle allusion to Sodom in M is emphasized in versions Comparison of Versions Jon 1:2Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 and noted in the reception history. Christian Tradition Jon 1:2

Focus on the Character of Jonah

The opening indicates that we are dealing with prophetic material, but unlike other prophetic texts, readers are given little information about the prophet himself (other than his patronym), his time, and his location. (Literary Devices Jon 1:1) This allows for: rêverie on his very name (Vocabulary Jon 1:1), biblical intertextuality (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1 Yona son of Amittai), historicization (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:1; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1,3a,5,7,15,17; 2:1,10; 3:1,3; 4:1,5,8). 

Jonah Flees

The motivation for Jonah to flee is not given at this point, and the reader must wait several chapters for more information on this. The curiosity of the reader is piqued, and many interpreters have reflected on the prophet's surprising behavior. Christian Tradition Jon 1:3Jewish Tradition Jon 1:3

1:1 Yona Another Witness to a Prophet Jonah? 2Kgs 14:25 mentions a prophet Jonah in the time of Jeroboam. According to Josephus’ retelling, despite Jeroboam’s wickedness—which had brought his people to misfortune—Jonah advised him to march against the Syrians in order to enlarge his territory.

• →Josephus A.J. 9.205–207 “[Jeroboam] was guilty of contumely against God, and became very wicked in worshipping of idols, and in many undertakings that were absurd and foreign. He was also the cause of ten thousand misfortunes to the people of Israel. Now one Jonah, a prophet, foretold to him that he should make war with the Syrians, and conquer their army, and enlarge the bounds of his kingdom on the northern parts to the city Hamath, and on the southern to the lake Asphaltitis; for the bounds of the Canaanites originally were these, as Joshua their general had determined them. So Jeroboam made an expedition against the Syrians, and overran all their country, as Jonah had foretold.”

1:4a great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

1:6c Perhaps Conjectural Religious Language The captain's "perhaps" expresses uncertainty. He recognizes the need for divine intervention while avoiding a mandate or prediction of divine behavior. Evidently he recognizes from experience that prayers may go unanswered.

• Identical conjectural language in religious contexts appears elsewhere in the Bible (Nm 23:3; 1Sm 6:5) and will be reflected in the response of the king of Nineveh (Jon 3:9).

1:8a this evil An Unnatural Storm

• →Rashi Comm. notes that the sailors would be able to see other ships sailing peacefully, and therefore they would know that the storm was unnatural.

1:17a a great fish Devouring Whole Ships

• →Tertullian Res. 58.8 "Jonah was swallowed by the monster (belva) of the deep, in whose belly whole ships were devoured (in cuius alvo naufragia digerebantur), and after three days was vomited out again safe and sound."

2:5a as far as the throat Targumic Abstraction

• →Tg. Jon. "The waters surrounded me until the death."

The Targum chooses to translate nepeš as the abstract concept “death” rather than the concrete body part “throat.” This translation changes the passage from a representational description of an imminent near-death experience to an abstract description of ultimate fate.

1:8b occupation Specification of the Term for Shipwork?

• mᵉlā’kâ generally means "occupation."

Ps 107:23 uses the same word to refer to shipping.

1:1ff Narrative Trigger The introduction consists of two roughly equal parts:

• the message from Yhwh (Jon 1:1–2); 
• Jonah’s silent response to it (Jon 1:3).  

The common denominator of both parts is the divine presence, God's "face." His message to Jonah is the result of the wickedness of the Ninevites entering before God’s face, and Jonah then tries to flee from that same face (cf. Jon 1:10).

1:5a The sailors NARRATION Characterization of Jonah's Companions through Word Choice While the sailors are simply referred to later as "men," the use of a technical term here (Vocabulary Jon 1:5a) might serve to emphasize that even sailors (not simply unskilled men) were scared. 

1:17 TYPOLOGY Elijah and Elisha as Types of Jonah See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f.

1:1 Yona son of Amittai A Multivalent Name

Jonah

Jonah's name means "dove," which is used throughout Scripture and conveys multiple nuances (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1).

Amittai

Derived from the verb he’ĕmîn, “to believe,” although its form is closer to the noun ’ĕmet, “truth,” the name includes a theophoric ending and could be translated as “Yhwh is true.”

1:3b ship And Not: Fleet

• ’ŏniyyâ (feminine) refers to a single ship.
• The masculine form, ’ŏnî, is the collective noun "fleet."

1:2 Get up NARRATION Characterization of God as the First Speaker  The author’s choice to present God as the first speaker sets the tone for the exchanges that follow. God’s speaking first gives Jonah an opportunity to respond, yet Jonah does not accept the invitation. In this way, Jonah might be seen as a foil to Samuel who hears the divine call and willingly responds. Jonah calls to God from the belly of the fish, but God does not respond. These two only begin to speak to one another in chapter four.

1:2 MOTIF An Israelite Sent to the Gentiles: Typological Motif in the Life of Paul?  The motif of a member of Israel being redirected to Gentile ministry is also found in Acts’ account of Paul’s life.

• Paul, who is deeply invested in Israel’s eschatological well-being, is diverted from his own journey and reoriented to the larger purposes of God among the Gentile world (Acts 9:1–9).
• The sailing motif once again appears in reverse fashion as Paul’s obedience leads to his own voyages to deliver the Gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 13).

1:1 the word of Yhwh was to Yona Targumic Amplification

• →Tg. Jon. "There was a word of prophecy from before the Lord with Jonah."

The Aramaic preposition qŏdām “before” used with the reference to God expresses respect. It keeps the courtly tone in which various acts are performed “from before” the kings or nobles.

1:3a from the face of Yhwh Targumic Expansion

• →Tg. Jon. "to flee by sea before he would prophesy in the name of the Lord."  

1:5–17 Moby Dick: Sermon on Jonah Although the film adaptation of Moby Dick (1956) must necessarily be trimmed to a reasonable length, a significant amount of time is given to Father Mapple’s sermon given to the whalers (cf. Literature Jon 1:3a). Father Mapple (played by Orson Welles) exhorts the sailors to bravery: “Delight is to him, who, against the proud gods and commodores of this earth, stands forth his own inexorable self.”

1:2 Get up, go Or: Set Out for! (Asyndetic Verbal Hendiadys: Auxiliary Use of the Verb?) The two opening verbs are imperatives: qûm and lēk.

• On its own, each verb is easily translated as "Get up!" and "Go!" 

However, the imperative qûm is often used as an auxiliary verb (having an adverbial function) when preceding another verb with no conjunction.

• If this is the case, qûm can remain untranslated and the two verbs work together to mean something like “Set out for,” “Go immediately,” or, as in the NRSV and JPS, “Go at once.”

Nevertheless, in this particular case, it is better to render the verb, for, while it does not make a significant change in meaning, it does preserve the (somewhat ironic) structure of the book’s opening (Literary Devices Jon 1:2f).

1:3d to Tarshish Use of the Locative -he Taršîšâ (cf. Textual Criticism Jon 1:3d).

1:2 Get up, go G C: Syntactic Construction G and →C (the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate) smooth out the construction of the first two verses (Grammar Jon 1:2) by inserting a conjunction: hence they read, “Get up and go.” 

1; 2:10 Use in Lectionary →RML: Monday, Week 27 in Year I.

1:2 call out against Other Possibilities

• call unto (cf. Is 34:14); cf. G, V, NJB;
• call against (1Kgs 13:2); cf. KJV;
• call about (Neh 6:7); cf. TNK.

1:4ab the sea NARRATION Dialectic Characterization of the Sea (cf. Jon 1:5,9,11,12,13,15; 2:3)

The representation of the sea in Jonah reflects a mytheme common among ancient cultures (Ancient Cultures Jon 1:4a).

One Creature among Others

The Lord acts upon the sea (Jon 1:4); it responds as a creature should. Jonah later declares that the Lord made the sea (Jon 1:9).

A Goddess?

As the story progresses, the sailors appear to regard the sea as a deity (Jon 1:11) and its actions grow increasingly nefarious (Jon 1:11,13) until it is placated with the sailors' offering of Jonah (Jon 1:15). This personification of the sea as a deity may continue into the psalm (Jon 2:3).

1:11b For the sea Emphatic kî-Clause? Here the kî-clause can be interpreted as emphatic rather than explanatory: its sense is “indeed the sea.”

1:7c,8a evil Leitwort in the Service of Irony See Literary Devices Jon 1:2 evil.

1:10a greatly Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

1:11ab,12bc,13b calm down + storm(y) — Quiet Storms and Stormy Humans Usage of wᵉyištōq (“and it calmed”) and wᵉsōʿēr (“and it stormed”) in parallel clauses invites readers to consider the blurring of literary personification and naturalization in Jonah. The word s‘r is used to describe storms (Jon 1:11–13; Jer 23:19; 25:32; Zec 7:14) and human anger (2Kgs 6:11). In Prv 26:20 we see štq used to describe the ceasing of a quarrel, while in Ps 107:30 the people rejoice in the new quiet (štq) of a stilled sea that was once stormy.

1:12c,16a great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

1:14a to Yhwh Change in Prayer Instead of calling out to their own gods, as the sailors did earlier (Jon 1:6), they now call out to the Lord. This does not need to reflect some sort of conversion; it simply expresses the sailors’ recognition that Jonah’s god has brought this storm upon them.

1:9b do I fear Targumic Change of Perspective

• →Tg. Jon. "I am in fear before the Lord."

1:10c fleeing Targumic Expansion

• →Tg. Jon. "fleeing before he would prophesy in the name of the Lord."

The Targumist consistently inserts references to prophecy.

1:17a a great fish And a Talkative One

• →Kisāʼī Qiṣaṣ:  The fish speaks to Jonah, telling him that he has come to him from India. In response, he jumps into the sea. At other points in the account, a wolf speaks to him.

2:3a heart of the seas Polysemous Phrase

• This phrase typically refers to the (unsearchable) open “high seas” (e.g., Prv 23:34; 30:19; Ez 27:4,26).
• Likewise it also refers to the (unfathomable) “depths of the seas” (e.g., Ps 46:2; Ez 28:8).

1:17a great Leitwort, Meaning See Literary Devices Jon 1:2.

2:2c belly of Sheol Intentional Intestinal Metaphor The phrase “belly of Sheol” only appears in Jonah (Vocabulary Jon 2:2c).

• Already in M, there may be an intentional parallel between this metaphor and Jonah’s presence in the belly of the fish in Jon 2:1, although different words for “belly” appear in the Hebrew (Jon 2:1: mē‘îm “innards”; Jon 2:2 beṭen).
• G, however, employs the same term on both occasions (koilia), meaning “womb” or “stomach.” Moreover, G has “sea-monster” instead of “fish” and “Hades” instead of “Sheol.”

2:6a I descended Underworld in Ugaritic Literature A myth about the feast and drunkenness of El (Ilu) assimilates downward motion with the dead and the underworld:

• Myth of El’s Banquet 1.114.22–23 “El fell down as though dead / El was like those who go down into the underworld” (→Wyatt 2002, 412).

Likewise, consider Baal’s words to his messengers to Mot, the god of earth and underworld:

• Baal Cycle 1.4.8.5–9 “Raise the mountain on your hands / the hill on top of your hands / and go down into the house of the couch of the earth / be numbered among those who go down into the earth” (→Wyatt 2002, 112–113; cf. the parallel in 1.5.5.13–16, this time said to Baal himself).

2:3b breakers G: swells G: meteôrismoi (“lifting up”) is related to the verb meteôrizô (“to raise to a height”) in the context of being on the high sea.

2:10 vomited Aquila's Use of Homeric Greek The verb exemeô “vomit forth, disgorge,” used by Aquila’s translation, is used of Charybdis in The Odyssey ( →Ziegler 1984 ad loc.).

• →Homer Od. 12.235–239 “For on one side lay Scylla and on the other divine Charybdis terribly sucked down the salt water of the sea. Verily whenever she belched it forth (exemeseise), like a cauldron on a great fire she would seethe and bubble in utter turmoil.” 

1:4b,11b,12c,13b storm Cognate Noun and Verb The participle sō‘ēr (“storming”) used at Jon 1:11b,13b is a cognate of the noun sa‘ar (“storm”) found at Jon 1:4b,12c.

As a noun it appears three times in Jeremiah (Jer 23:19; 25:32; 30:23), and once in Amos (Am 1:14). As a verb it appears in 2Kgs 6:11; Is 54:11; Jer 30:23; Hos 13:3; Hb 3:14; Zec 7:14. Most often, it is used to denote storms at sea (Literary Devices Jon 1:11ab,12bc,13b).

1:10c he had told them Art of Telling: Ellipsis of Details The narrator implies that Jonah had told the sailors more information than was conveyed in his earlier answer. →Jenson (2008, 54) suggests that this necessary information was omitted in Jonah's reply to sharpen the focus of his answer on the essential details.

2:5b seaweed Contextual Meaning

• The word sûp, a singular collective noun, could denote any aquatic plant, such as seaweed, in the present context.
• Throughout the OT, however, sûp is most closely associated with the Exodus. Moses is found among the reeds (sûp) as an infant (Ex 2:5); likewise, he leads the Hebrews across the “Sea of Reeds” (yam-sûp) on dry land (Ex 14:16,21–22; cf. V in Comparison of Versions Jon 2:5b). 

1:3b going to Tarshish Or: Coming to Tarshish? The author could have conveyed that Jonah found a ship that was “going to” Tarshish with either the locative -he (Grammar Jon 1:3d) or the verb hālak. 

• The usual sense of the verb retained, bô’, is movement toward, rather than away, and the translations “returning to Tarshish” (→Trible 1994, 129) and "had just come from Tarshish" (→Sasson 1990, 66 and 82-84) convey this. As the ship’s destination is clear, while its origin is less so, it is simply rendered “going to.”

1:1 Now Narrative Marker The first word of the book, wayhî can carry at least six nuances, including a temporal one:

• “When YHWH's command”;
• “And it came to pass”;
• “And so it was”; etc.  

As a narrative marker, it may be simply rendered as “Now” (cf. Literary Genre Jon 1:1).

1:2 call out against Or: to (Meaning of the Preposition)

• The verb qr’ + the preposition ‘al can be understood in diverse ways (History of Translations Jon 1:2). 

Our translation emphasizes that the sense of qr’ + the preposition ‘ālêhā is oppositional: calling out against, rather than calling upon. The oppositional nature is fortified by the content of Jonah’s message when he does, in fact, call out against Nineveh (Jon 3:4). 

1:2f Irony of Jonah's Flight: Inversion of the "We Will Do and We Will Listen" Motif? After the revelation of the Torah on Mount Sinai, the Israelites famously pledged na‘ăśê wᵉnišmā‘ (“We will do and we will listen [to all that God has declared],” Ex 24:7), making two promises: to do/obey and to listen/learn.

• Jonah here, who is about to dub himself “a Hebrew” (Jon 1:9), responds to the twofold command (Jon 1:2 qûm lēk) by getting up (Jon 1:3 wayyāqām) and…fleeing. 
• Moreover, instead of getting up, Jonah “descends” twice in Jon 1:3, as Jonah goes down to Joppa and down into a ship (Literary Devices Jon 1:3b,5d; 2:6a). 
• Lastly, one needs only very basic geography (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:2) to know that if Jonah heads out to sea, then he is heading away from Nineveh.

1:2,3a,10c face Leitwort

• The face of Yhwh is mentioned thrice at Jon 1:2–3a,10c.

God calls Jonah because the wickedness of the Ninevites has ascended before God’s face; Jonah then tries to flee from before the face of God.

1:2 against it for their evil Number Variation

• Rendered most simply, ‘ālêhā is “to/against her,”
• while rā‘ātām is plural, “their evil.”

The author could have written that Jonah was to call out against the city because "her wickendness" has come up. By switching to plural, the author is drawing attention more concretely to the citizens of the city for the first time. 

1:2 evil Leitwort in the Service of Irony (cf. also Jon 1:7–8; 3:10; 4:1-2,6).

The noun rā‘â has a very generic meaning and expresses

• either evil that one produces (wickedness),
• or evil that one suffers (calamity).

Human

Within the story, evil functions as an unwanted and dangerous object that is passed around.

• It is produced by the Ninevites and ascends (seemingly of its own volition) to the Divine presence in Jon 1:2.
• From there, Jonah’s disobedience brings it upon the sailors (Jon 1:7–8).

Divine?

The enactment of “evil” is not only the domain of human beings.

• Via the prophet, God threatens to do “evil” to the Ninevites (Jon 3:10).
• When they repent, Jonah determines that God’s refraining from retributive calamity is unjust, believing it was a “great evil” (Jon 4:1).
• In response, Jonah recognizes (and laments) that one of God’s core attributes is that in his mercifulness, he relents from bringing calamity on those who might deserve it (Jon 4:2).
• The story ends in a rather ironic way, when a God-sent plant “protected him from his evil” (Jon 4:6)—here, hopefully not from the presumed calamities Jonah suffered, but from the evil he himself was cultivating in his own unmerciful heart.

1:3 RHETORIC Chiseled Dispositio This verse offers a concentric structure: 

• the presence of the Lord (A-A’),
• going down (to Joppa B, inside the ship B’),
• finding (C) and paying for (C’) the ship,
• going to Tarshish (D), the toponym which is also found in A and A’.

This structure is enriched with a pair of triads, with the verse focusing on the intent, activity, and goal.

• Jonah seeks to escape, goes down to Joppa, finds a ship.  
• He then pays, boards, and sails.

Moreover, there is a reflection effect between Jon 1:3 and Jon 1:2 (Literary Devices Jon 1:2f; Literary Devices Jon 1:3f).

1:1 Yona son of Amittai The Same as the One from Gath-Hepher? 2Kgs 14:25 contains the OT's only other mention of a prophet named Jonah the son of Amittai. There one learns that Jonah was from Gath-Hepher, which was the eastern boundary of the tribe of Zebulun as noted in Jo 19:13 (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:1).

• Since the name Gath-Hepher combines gat ("winepress") and ḥēper ("well" or "pit"), viticulture may have been the town's chief industry.
• The modern Arab village of Meshed, east of Sepphoris, is often identified as Gath-Hepher, and there is a grave of Jonah there.

1:2 Nineveh Assyria's Last Capital (cf. Jon 3:2–7; 4:5,11).

Mention in the Scriptures

• The city is first referred to in the Bible at Gn 10:11–12, where the term "great city" is also used, although it may be a reference to Calah.

• Jonah contains nine of the OT’s fourteen references to the city.

• By metonymy, the terms Nineveh, Assyria, or the king of Assyria, often all refer to the empire, as well as its military and political power. See more at Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 Nineveh.

Topography

An extremely ancient city (6000 B.C.), Nineveh (Nînᵉwé) is on the banks of the Tigris, near modern Mosul.

Archaeology

Archaeological excavations of Tell Kuyunjik (not of Tell Nebi Yunus due to its sanctity among Muslims) by the French and British have been conducted since the mid-19^th c., generating volumes of scholarly publications (see →Thompson and Hutchinson 1929; →Petit and Bonacossi 2017). The British Museum houses many of the great finds.

• These include carved wall panels of the palaces of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal, complete with depictions of lion hunts, gardens, and the construction of great monuments.

• Similarly grand is the collection of cuneiform textual deposits from Kuyunjik.

Name

• Based on the cuneiform for Nineveh (Ninua), which is a fish within a house, the city may have derived its name from a fish goddess.

• Beginning in the Old Assyrian period, the city was dedicated to “Ishtar of Nineveh.”

History: Neo-Assyrian Development

• Sennacherib (704–681 B.C.) fortified the city, enclosing an area of 750 ha. He saw to the construction of the Jerwan aqueduct as a means of irrigating the surrounding region and bringing fresh water to the city from the local mountains (see photos in →Jacobsen and Lloyd 1935, 17). Evidence of grand public works, especially for irrigation, has led to a scholarly discussion about the possibility of identifying Nineveh (rather than Babylon) as the site of the famous hanging gardens of ancient Mesopotamia (→Dalley 2015). Ultimately, Sennacherib made Nineveh the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

• The city functioned as the capital until the Babylonians and Medes conquered it in 612 B.C.

Size

Nineveh looms large in the archaeological record. Its size is mentioned in Jon 3:3 and again in Jon 4:11. Still, evidence from Kuyunjik by no means confirms that its size would have necessitated a three-day walk. The reference to Nineveh’s size in Jonah (Jon 3:3; 4:11) may serve more to accentuate the enormity of the task before Jonah and the enormity of the Ninevites’ response.

1:3b found a ship Archaeological Evidence for the Wordplay? An 8^th–7^th c. seal shows the earliest representation of a ship with a Hebrew inscription.

• The underside of the seal is engraved with a sailing ship at the top, having a single mast at the center, a prow terminating with a horse protome, and a stern with a steering oar. The gunwale displays a row of round shields.
• It bears a Hebrew inscription in two registers, with a double line below each line of text and dots dividing the words l’nyhw bn myrb (“Belonging to Oniyahu son of Merab”).

The Judahite name Oniyahu means "Yhwh is my strength," but could easily be heard as "Yhwh is my ship."

1:3b Yapho Elsewhere in Scripture

• Initially, the area around Joppa is ascribed to Dan, but the tribe then re-settled in the east of Canaan (Jo 19:46).
• After King Solomon enlisted the help of Hiram, the king of Tyre, to erect the Temple in Jerusalem, he received wood from Lebanon through Joppa’s harbor (2Chr 2:16).
• When the newly returned Jews set out to rebuild the Temple, they asked permission from King Cyrus so that they could trade with the Tyrians and the Sidonians. From them they buy Lebanese cedarwood which is delivered at Joppa’s harbor (Ezra 3:7).
• During the Maccabean revolt, Jonathan attacked Joppa, where the Seleucid general Apollonius had a garrison; the city surrendered to him (1Mc 10:67–89). Simon then garrisoned Joppa, and his envoy Jonathan, son of Absalom, chased off its inhabitants (1Mc 12:33–34). The capture of Joppa was considered a major achievement by the author of 1 Maccabees, since it gave access to the Mediterranean islands (1Mc 14:5); the fortification of Joppa was also noted in the honorific decree voted after Simon’s death in his honor (1Mc 14:34). 2 Maccabees reports that the inhabitants of Joppa set up a trap to murder their Jewish neighbors; they invited them to sea and then drowned them. In retaliation, Judas Maccabeus set the harbor and boats on fire (2Mc 12:3–6).
• Peter dwelt in Joppa for some time; there, he raised a Christian woman named Tabitha/Dorcas from the dead (Acts 9:36–43). While staying there, the Lord sends him a vision indicating that no four-footed animal should be considered unfit to eat. Then the envoys from the centurion Cornelius of Caesarea find him there (Acts 10:9–23; 11:5–13).

1:1 Yona son of Amittai Rabbis on Jonah (cf. Jon 1:3a,5,7,15,17; 2:1,10; 3:1,3; 4:1,5,8).

Origins

• →Pirqe R. El. 33: Rabbinic tradition maintains that Jonah was the son of the widow of Zarephath whom Elijah raised. After being raised, Jonah became the disciple of Elijah and then of Elisha after Elijah’s ascension (cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1).

Noting the Zarephath tradition,

• some suggest Jonah was of the tribe of Asher,
• while others, noting the association of Jonah's origins with Gath-Hepher (2Kgs 14:25), have concluded that he was a Zebulinite (cf. Jo 19:13; →Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 78).

Prophet to the House of Jehu

• Similarly, the rabbinic tradition identifies a young Jonah as the prophet sent by Elisha to anoint Jehu and to announce God’s desire that he dispatch the remnant of the house of Ahab (→Pirqe R. El. 10; →S. ‘Olam Rab. 19).

• A young Jonah is also regarded by some rabbinic traditions as the prophet responsible for communicating the reward of a four-generation dynasty to Jehu for keeping God's mandate (→Zlotowitz and Scherman [1978, xxv] refers to Rashi and →S. ‘Olam Rab. without specifying further).
• One learns from the biblical tradition of a Jonah son of Amittai from Gath-Hepher who called for Jeroboam II (Jehu's grandson) to restore the boundaries of Israel (2Kgs 14:25; cf. Ancient Texts Jon 1:1).
• Finally, Jonah's life is said to have ended during the reign of Zechariah (2Kgs 15:8–12) at the Moses-like age of 120 (→S. ‘Olam Rab. 18).

As a result, the rabbinic tradition shows that Jonah serves as a prophet (like Moses) to the entire House of Jehu (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, xxiv–xxvi, 78–79).

1:3a to Tarshish Targumic Exegesis

• →Tg. Jon. "to sea."

The same rendering of Tharshish is also applied elsewhere (e.g., Is 2:16; 23:1,14).

1:1 The word of Yhwh Jonah Already an Active Prophet

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "The word of God then was not for the first time communicated to Jonah, when he was sent to Nineveh; but it pleased God, when he was already a Prophet, to employ him among other nations…He had been previously not only a worshipper of the true God, but also a Prophet, and had no doubt faithfully discharged his office; for God would not have resolved to send him to Nineveh, had he not conferred on him suitable gifts; and he knew him to be qualified for undertaking a burden so great and so important."

1:1 son of Amittai Identity and Symbolism of Jonah

• →Ephrem Hymn. virg. 45.1–2 et passim refers to Jonah simply as the "son of Mattai," but he never makes the connection to the prophet of the same name found in the Kings narrative (2Kgs 14:25).
• →Gloss. ord. "The Hebrews say that Saint Jonah was the son of the widowed woman Sareptana, whom the prophet Elijah raised from the dead. Afterward Jonah's mother said to Elijah, 'Now I know that you are a man of God and the word of the Lord in your mouth is truth' (1Kgs 17:24). For this reason they call this boy Amathi, for Amathi [’ĕmet] means 'truth' in our language...Therefore, a dove is born from truth since 'Jonah' means 'dove'" (cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1).
• →Gloss. ord. "Argumentum—Jonah the beautiful dove, prefiguring the passion of the Lord by his shipwreck, calls the world back to repentance, and he announces salvation for the Gentiles under the name of 'Nineveh.'"
• →Gloss. ord.: Jonah signifies "Christ, over whom the Spirit in the appearance of a dove [appeared], who also is suffering on our behalf."

1:2f A Mystic Sympathizes with Jonah's Flight In 1897, the Carmelite nun, St. Thérèse of Lisieux, wrote a letter to her Prioress wherein she describes the difficulty of training novices. In particular, she notes how she has become aware of the extent to which conversion is a divine act, something achieved by God’s grace, not by human action. Given this difficulty—as well as the need to remain humble while administering reproofs and instruction—she sympathizes with Jonah, who would rather flee than reproach Nineveh.

• →Thérèse of Lisieux Autob. “In the abstract, it seems easy to do good to souls, to make them love God more, and to mould them to one’s own ideas. But, when we put our hands to the work, we quickly learn that without God’s help it is as impossible to do good to them, as to bring back the sun when once it has set. Our own tastes, our own ideas must be put aside, and in absolute forgetfulness of self we must guide souls, not by our way, but along that particular path which Our Lord Himself indicates. The chief difficulty, however, does not lie even here—what costs more than all else is to be compelled to note their faults, their slightest imperfections, and to wage a deadly war against them...ever since I placed myself in the arms of Jesus I have been like a watchman on the look-out for the enemy from the highest turret of a fortified castle. Nothing escapes me; indeed my clear-sightedness often gives me matter for surprise, and makes me think it quite excusable in the prophet Jonas to have fled before the face of the Lord rather than announce the ruin of Ninive. I would prefer to receive a thousand reproofs rather than inflict one, yet I feel it necessary that the task should cause me pain, for if I spoke through natural impulse only, the soul in fault would not understand she was in the wrong and would simply think: ‘The Sister in charge of me is annoyed about something and vents her displeasure upon me, although I am full of the best intentions.’ But in this, as in all else, I must practise sacrifice and self-denial” (176–177).

1:3a Jonah got up to flee Reordering the Story

• →Kisāʼī Qiṣaṣ presents a different narrative sequence. After being commissioned, Jonah preaches to the Ninevites but is rejected. It is then that he boards a ship.

This narrative differs from the biblical account because Islamic commentators were concerned by the notion of a prophet who refuses Allah’s mission—and who even gets angry with Allah. Thus the tale has been modified in order to absolve Jonah from reproach and to preserve the impeccability of prophets.

1:2 Nineveh, the great city Geography for Children Although the moral aspects of the story of Jonah are clear, especially in children’s adaptations, several books include historical content as well.

• →Spier 1985 has several pages of historical content, including maps, details about the Assyrian Empire, the tomb of Jonah, ancient ships, and archaeological discoveries.
• →Marzollo 2004 begins her book with a map and provides historical context for Jonah’s motivation: “Jonah did not want to teach the Ninevites because they were enemies of Israel.”

1:5d But Jonah Paragraph Demarcation

Place

• In 4QXII^g (4Q82 76-78i+79-81:10) there is a blank ruled line after v. 5a, which seems to indicate an interval or a paragraph demarcation (→DJD XV, 309).
• A paragraph demarcation is not found after v. 5a in other textual traditions (e.g., M).

Significance

The blank interval in 4QXII^g likely indicates that a new sense unit begins after v. 5a.  This division of sense units highlights the contrast between Jonah's behavior and that of the sailors: whereas the sailors, fearful for their lives, cry to their gods and jettison cargo, Jonah inexplicably descends to the hold of the ship to go to sleep (Grammar Jon 1:5d; Literary Devices Jon 1:5d).

1:5c the vessels which were in the ship Referent: Cargo in Jars? The banal Hebrew word kēlîm means "containers" or "jars," probably amphorae for transporting goods (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:5c).

1:5d boat Hapax legomenon: Aramaism?

• The ancient versions considered the noun sᵉpînâ to be a synonym for “ship.” It is well known in Aramaic.

It must refer to a type of a ship with a deck and a hold for cargo. See →Introduction §1.2.

1:6a captain Technical Term: "Chief of the Ropes"?

• The Hebrew term rab haḥōbēl can be rendered woodenly as "chief rigger" or "roper." The word ḥōbēl rarely occurs elsewhere (e.g., Ez 27:8,27–29). Since it seems clear that he is in charge of the ship in some capacity, "helmsman" or "captain" may be preferable.
• The Greek term prôᵢreus traditionally means "bowman" or "look-out." Typically the prôᵢreus would take command if the captain became incapacitated.

→Sasson (1990, 103) bases his translation, "helmsman," on his interpretation of iconographic depictions of Levantine ships in which a rudder is steered with ropes.

1:6c think of Hapax legomenon: Aramaism The Hebrew root 'št rarely occurs in the OT.

• In Jer 5:28 the stem is qal and appears to mean "grow sleek or smooth" evidently based on occurrences of the root in nominal forms (e.g., Sg 5:14 where a nominal form refers to "polished" ivory).

• Here the stem is hitpa‘el (yit‘aššēt); it has the sense, “to think well of,” indicating an Aramaism (cf. Dn 6:3 [4]; →Wolff 1986, 107; →Limburg 1993, 51).

Understandably, the versions diverge from this, employing a free translation.

1:4a,5b,12b,15a hurled + hurl — Leitwort

• Forms of the verb ṭwl, “to hurl, cast, or throw,” are found in Jon 1:4a,5b,12b,15a. God hurls a great wind, and so the sailors hurl the cargo. Jonah asks them to hurl him (instead of cargo) and they do so.
• Elsewhere the verb is used of weapons, as when Saul hurls a spear (1Sm 18:11; 20:33), just as a storm is a heavenly weapon (Jer 49:36—this latter example resonates with depictions of Baal, who hurls lightning, and thus draws on the convergence of Baal’s and Yhwh’s characteristic traits as storm deities [Ancient Cultures Jon 1:4a]).

Nowhere else in the Bible does God “hurl a wind.” This lends strength to the view that the word is consciously used to unify the various actions.

1:4b,11b,12c,13b storm + stormy — NARRATIVE Punctuation and Intensification At key points of the story, readers are given information about the severity of the storm.

• God begins the action by hurling a great wind and producing a great storm (Jon 1:4; cf. Jon 1:12).

• At the climax of the sailors’ interrogation of Jonah (“What shall we do to you...?”), the narrator adds to the urgency of this question by noting that the sea grew stormier (Jon 1:11).

• The sailors try to row hard toward land once more, but the intensification of the storm makes this impossible (Jon 1:13).

1:6c your god NARRATION Characterization of God: One among Others? When the captain specifies to Jonah that the object of his cries/prayers should be "your" (i.e., Jonah's) deity, he tacitly recognizes multiple deities.

• The captain is not a monotheist and exhibits no knowledge of Jonah’s devotion to “Yhwh, God of the heavens” (Jon 1:9). Yet, he does exhibit a modicum of belief that Jonah’s God may be powerful enough to have caused the storm and therefore is in need of appeasement.
• As the story unfolds there is no clear indication that Jonah acquiesces to the captain’s command, apart from leaving the hull of the ship and going on deck.

1:5e and lay down and fell fast asleep Jonah's Sleep The Hebrew verb rdm, “to sleep heavily,” is sometimes connected to visions in M (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:5e). G, V, and S, however, do not note this association.

The Septuagint: A Vivid Translation

G renders M’s wayyiškab wayyērādam with ekatheuden kai erregchen, which is not an exact translation. The first verb of the translation, katheudô (“to lie down to sleep,” “to sleep”), corresponds semantically to M’s škb and, as such, is frequently chosen to render škb in G (→Hatch and Redpath 1906, 2:700). However, the second verb of G, regchô (“to snore”), corresponds neither to rdm (“to sleep deeply”) nor to anything else in M. It is unlikely that this is a matter of a different Vorlage; rather, it appears to be a free decision of the translator. One possible reason for this translation choice may have been to make the narrative more vivid (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:6c).

The Peshitta: A Simplifying Translation

The phrase wayyiškab wayyērādam is translated by a single verb, wedmak (“and he slept”), in S. This appears to be the result of a translation decision, not a different Vorlage.

The Vulgate: A Translation of Dynamic Equivalence

The Vetus Latina, which reads et dormiebat, et stertebat (“was sleeping and snoring”), follows G. V, on the other hand, translates M with dormiebat sopore gravi (“was sleeping in a deep sleep”). Jerome thus appears to have taken wayyiškab wayyērādam as referring to one single action rather than two; perhaps he understood the second verb, wayyērādam, to be an adverbial modification or clarification of the first.

1:6c think The Connection between Thinking and Saving Perhaps due to the rarity of the Hebrew verb yit‘aššēt (“think of”), the versions offer diverging translations.

The Septuagint: A Classically Nuanced Translation?

At first G’s diasôsêᵢ does not appear to be a close translation of yit‘aššēt, which is perhaps due to the rarity of the word in Hebrew. It is possible that the translator sought to make the sense of the Hebrew more explicit in this context—namely that God’s remembrance of them would bring about their salvation. On the other hand, the term diasôᵢzô might have some semantic overlap with the Hebrew ‘št. In Greek literature of the 5^th–4^th c. B.C., diasôᵢzô sometimes has the sense of keeping something in mind, i.e., “saving” what one has learned (cf. →Isocrates Hel. enc. 10.63; →Plato Resp. 395b; →Xenophon Hell. 7.2.17; →Xenophon Mem. 3.5.22). Though this is not the primary meaning of diasôᵢzô, it may explain why it was used to translate yit‘aššēt.

The Peshitta: Giving the Sense of M

The Syriac translator uses a standard pa‘el verb (nepṣᵉyan) meaning “save” or “deliver” to translate M’s yit‘aššēt. This could be an interpretive translation that sought to replace a metaphorical expression with its signifié—a tendency reflected throughout S. According to the translator, “to think on them” means “to save them.” It is also possible that S was influenced by G’s use of diasôᵢzô; indeed, S exhibits a degree of literary dependence on G, particularly in its translation of the Twelve Prophets (→Dirksen 1988, 264–295; →Romney and Morrison 2011, 326–331).

The Vetus Latina and Vulgate: Followers of G and M

The Vetus Latina, which reads si quomodo salvos faciat nos Deus, appears to be a slightly awkward periphrastic translation of G. V’s rendering, si forte recogitet Deus, is a close translation of M. The correspondence between cogito and the Aramaic verb ‘št, which has more or less the same meaning as ‘št in Hebrew, is found in the Vulgate at Dn 6:4 as well.

1:4a hurled a great wind Similar Imagery in the OT By depicting Yhwh as hurling a storm, the Book of Jonah merges the imagery of a divine warrior and storm deity.

• Saul, for example, hurls (ṭwl) his spear at David (1Sm 18:11; 20:33).

Likewise, the image of God as a storm deity who casts lightning bolts as weapons appears elsewhere in the OT, typically in its most ancient poetry (e.g., 2Sm 22:15; Ps 18:15).

• Similar imagery appears in the Major Prophets who speak of God hurling (ṭwl) the people from the land (see Is 22:17; Jer 16:13; 22:26,28).
• Among the Minor Prophets, Hb 3:11 is exemplary in likening God to a warrior that hurls arrows and spears.

1:5e fast asleep Motif of Divinely Induced Sleep? The verb rdm, “to sleep heavily,” is found 11 times in the Hebrew Bible. The following are examples of its usage.

• Sisera sleeps deeply when exhausted from battle (Jgs 4:18-21).

• The lazy sleep during harvest (Prv 10:5).

• When Daniel hears the voice of a heavenly figure, he sleeps deeply, and upon waking, he has additional visions (Dn 8:18; 10:9).

In other cases, the verb npl is used in conjunction with the derivative form tardēmâ, usually to express divinely induced sleep:

• God puts Adam into a deep sleep in the garden before taking his rib (Gn 2:21).

• A deep sleep falls upon Abraham, presumably at God’s behest, during which he has a vision that concludes with God making a covenant with him (Gn 15:12).

• God puts Saul and his companions into a deep sleep, thus allowing David to take Saul’s spear and water jug (1Sm 26:12). 

• God pours out a spirit of deep sleep upon the prophets and others as part of his judgment against them (Is 29:10).

• Jb 4:13; 33:15 likewise joins dreams and visions—perhaps of a more mundane sort—to a deep sleep.

The use of this expression here could indicate that Jonah went down into the ship in order to enter a trance and receive a revelation. There is nothing else in the story, however, to suggest this was Jonah’s intent; so it is more likely that Jonah yet again seeks to flee God (Literary Devices Jon 1:5e). 

1:4a Yhwh hurled Why Does God Punish Jonah?

• →b. Sanh. 89a “One who suppresses his prophecy…is liable to the death penalty at the hands of heaven.” Further, the tractate elaborates, “one who suppresses his prophecy: for example, Jonah son of Amittai.”
• →Malbim Gé’ ḥizzāyôn contends that Jonah was not guilty of suppressing a specific prophecy, but rather a general command to exhort the Ninevites to repentance. That is why he did not suffer death.

1:5b each man A Gentile Microcosm The rabbinic tradition notes both the piety and the diversity of the sailors (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 86). 

• →Rashi Comm. says that the crew was drawn from each of the 70 nations, a microcosm of all humanity. 
• →b. Qidd. 82a notes that "sailors are generally pious."

1:5c They hurled the vessels Halakhah Regarding Cargo

• →b. B. Qam. 116b contains a rule regarding the jettisoning of cargo in case of an emergency. To lighten the vessel, the cargo to be thrown over is to be determined with regard to weight, not value, as long as this does not violate a different local maritime custom. That is, one might have to throw over a certain weight of gold while another jettisons the same weight of copper.

The storm-tossed sailors do likewise in Acts 27:18. 

1:7e and the lot fell Hebrew Orthographic Variant

• 4QXII^a (cf. 4Q76 5:7) and 4QXII^g (cf. 4Q81 1:4) attest the plene spelling of the verb (wayyapîlû; →DJD XV, 229, 309).
• M contains the shorter spelling (wayyapilû).

1:8a Tell Hebrew Grammatical Variant

• M spells the imperative haggîdâ ("tell") plene with a paragogic -he attached.
• 4QXII^a (see 4Q76 5:18) has the simple imperative haggēd without the paragogic -he (cf. →DJD XV, 229). 

Though this grammatical difference would be difficult to bring out in translation, it seems likely that the imperative form attested in M is more emphatic than that found in 4QXII^a. 

1:8a on whose account A Secondary Insertion?

Proposed Emendation

Significant disruption in the text has led to the argument that the text originated as a marginal note meant to explain the relative in Jon 1:7  (i.e., š- = ’ăšer) and was later incorporated into the text at the wrong point (→Wolff 1986, 107).

Minus in Some M Manuscripts

• A few manuscripts (M) omit the expression (ba’ăšer lᵉmî), perhaps due to homoioteleuton with Jon 1:7.
• Mur88 10:13 also contains ba’ăšer lᵉmî, thus supporting the majority reading of M (→DJD II, 190). 

Reconstructed Witnesses from Qumran

• Although the phrase is often reconstructed in the lacunae of 4QXII^f (4Q81 1:5) and 4QXII^g (4Q82 f76-78i+79-81:15), such reconstructions are not suitable for use as textual evidence, especially since the lacunae in both mss. span nearly an entire line (→DJD XV, 269, 309). 
• Another ancient witness (4QXII^a) reads bᵉšelmî (cf. 4Q76 5:18), which is possibly an assimilation to the word's occurrence in a preceding line (cf. 4Q76 5:16; →DJD XV, 229) However, this is not certain since most of 4Q76 5:16, including the word bᵉšelmî, must be reconstructed on the basis of M-Jon 1:7 and 4QXII^g (cf. 4Q82 f76-78i+79-81:13; →DJD XV, 309).

M Confirmed by the Versions

The mss. of G tend toward two different translations of ba’ăšer lᵉmî:

• The majority reading (virtually all uncials, including B-S-V-W, and several minuscules) renders it with the phrase tinos heneken, while the phrase dia tina is found in all of the manuscripts of the Lucian recension except ms. 613, as well as ms. 68. It is possible to argue that both translations capture the sense of M.
• Likewise V, which reads cuius causa, supports M's reading. 

Given the above considerations of ancient sources as well as the principle of lectio difficilior potior, the text of M should not be emended. The sense of the unemended text of M is explored below (see Grammar Jon 1:8a Implied Nominal Phrase). 

1:13a rowed Shift of Register from Earth to Sea The standard meaning of the Hebrew verb ḥtr is “to dig,” which can be ascertained from the following contexts:

• Jb 24:16 – digging a tunnel;

• Ez 8:8 – digging through a wall;

• Am 9:2 – digging down to Sheol.

The use of the verb in Jon 1:13 (wayyaḥtᵉrû) to describe the sailors’ activity seems to indicate the lack of a Hebrew word for rowing, and may also suggest a lack of familiarity with nautical terminology. The use of this term for rowing still obtains in modern Hebrew.

1:9b do I fear Participle: Durative Force Jonah begins his response with a verbless clause “I am a Hebrew.” The matching expression “do I fear” echoes the construction of Jonah’s initial claim with the same syntax but utilizes a participial construction which, as an echo of the first clause (Literary Devices Jon 1:9b), must be taken as a verbal predicate.

A participial predicate, which normally connotes present tense, evidently has a durative sense in the present context. That is, Jonah has feared and continues to fear Yhwh.

1:11b,13b continued to become more stormy Gradual Progression The lack of a finite verb within the kî-clause in which this construction appears effectively places its data in the background of the narrative. The pair of participles, hôlēk wᵉsō‘ēr, here functions as a verbal hendiadys to describe the storm’s growing intensity.

• In this construction the verb hlk acts as an auxiliary verb that denotes gradual progression and makes dynamic the typically static sense of the verb s‘r.

• Since both verbs are participles, they convey a durative force: thus the sea “continued to become more stormy.”

For other examples of this construction, see Ex 19:19; 1Sm 17:41; 2Sm 3:1; 15:12; Est 9:4; Prv 4:18.

1:10–13 RHETORIC Concentration of kî-Clauses Clauses introduced by the Hebrew particle kî can have various meanings and functions. Such clauses appear nine times throughout Jon 1 and three occur at the conclusion of Jon 1:10, having the effect of an anaphora:

• kî yādᵉ‘û “for they knew”—causal;
• kî…hû’ bōrē^aḥ “that he was fleeing”—introducing an object clause;
• kî higgîd “for he had told them”—causal.

This three-fold repetition of kî-clauses is often explained as a later interpolation from an early marginal note (Textual Criticism Jon 1:10c). Considering the broader context of Jon 1:10–13, the series of kî-clauses expands significantly—from three to seven occurrences. Within this broader context a clear rhetorical structure and purpose can be discerned (cf. →Trible 1994, 142).

• The first three kî-clauses found in Jon 1:10 exhibit a repeated deictic function: they point out the sailors’ new knowledge about Jonah, a summation of Jonah’s behavior (flight), and a terse indication of Jonah’s self-report.
• The subsequent kî-clause (Jon 1:11) emphasizes the activity of the sea (“for [kî] the sea continued to become more stormy”) followed by a pair of deictic kî-clauses in Jon 1:12 that explain Jonah’s knowledge of the situation.
• The series concludes in Jon 1:13 with another example of an emphatic kî-clause, again emphasizing the activity of the sea like a refrain.

The series of kî-clauses in Jon 1:10 and its accompanying shift to narratival explanation may therefore be explained in two ways.

• First, the shift to narratival explanation permits rhetorical emphasis on the storms activity.
• Second, as →Simon (1999) suggests, the shift to narrative explanation can convey “the sailors’ consciousness” of the situation’s gravity (“For the men knew,” Jon 1:10) prior to Jonah’s (“For I myself know,” Jon 1:12). So, while the narrative highlights the storm’s actions, Jonah’s interior state recedes into the background.

1:10a,16a the men were greatly afraid + the men greatly feared Yhwh — THEME Fear Properly Directed

The Sailors’ Fear

Fear has a significant role in driving the sailors’ behavior: they abandon precious cargo and cry out to their gods. Jon 1:10, with its cognate accusative, captures the intensification of the sailors’ fear, when they learn that Jonah has angered Yhwh through his flight. Jon 1:16 emphasizes their redoubled fear of Yhwh when the sailors toss Jonah overboard.

Jonah’s Fear

Jonah, on the other hand, is not afraid of the storm—evidenced by his nonchalant sleeping—but he is afraid of the God who brought it.

A New Kind of Fear

When the sailors do as Jonah tells them, and hurl him overboard, the storm ceases. With no more storm, the sailors might have nothing to fear. Instead, they become like Jonah, and fear a great fear of Yhwh and offer him worship. Whereas before, in the chaos of the storm, the sailors each cried out to his own god, now they are unified and safe, offering sacrifices and vows to Yhwh.

1:9b,11ff,15 the sea See Literary Devices Jon 1:4ab the sea.

1:11a What shall we do End of Questions Having gathered all the necessary information about Jonah’s situation, the sailors ask the final question about what they must do to calm the storm. Moreover, they recognize not simply that they must do something but that they must do something to Jonah. 

1:13a rowed Irony? The use of the word ḥtr (“to dig”; cf. Vocabulary Jon 1:13a) conveys vigor and intensity: “rowed hard.” →Tucker (2006) adds a sense of futility in his translation, “desperately rowed.”

1:14b Please Pleading for Life

NARRATION Motive

Here one find’s language of entreaty in the particles ’ānnâ and -nâ. This language is reserved for extreme circumstances (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:14b).

ENUNCIATION Direct Discourse

For the first time, the Lord is directly addressed. Even though the captain instructs Jonah to call out to his god, he did not do so.

1:16 RHETORIC Triple Repetition of Verb Plus Cognate Accusatives This verse presents an unusual use of three verbs used along with their cognate accusatives.

• The sailors fear a fear, sacrifice a sacrifice, and vow vows.

This device allows the narrator to illustrate the emotional states of his characters.

• In particular, the phrase wayyîr’û…yir’â gᵉdôlâ (“they feared a great fear”) in Jon 1:16 echoes Jon 1:10 and its expressive internal accusative, wayyîr’û…yir’â gᵉdôlâ.

1:16a the men greatly feared Yhwh NARRATION Characterization of the Sailors: Converts? This verse recalls the beginning of the drama when the sailors feared the storm and called on their own gods (Jon 1:5). Having been rescued from death, they now fear Yhwh and make sacrifices and vows to Yhwh. This may be an instance of conversion, as later Jewish tradition will emphasize (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:16c). Alternatively, it may be another example in which they recognize the power of Yhwh inasmuch as Jonah had been called upon to pray to Yhwh (Jon 1:6) and they had prayed to Yhwh prior to hurling Jonah overboard (Jon 1:14). In any case, no word for conversion is explicitly stated. 

1:9b I am a Hebrew Etic Demonym Jonah’s emic self-identification would be “I am an Israelite.” He uses here the etic identification of his people: “I am a Hebrew.” Jonah’s self-descriptive “I am a Hebrew” would be odd for him to use when talking to another Jew, although perfectly normal for him to use when speaking to sailors from other, various people groups.

1:13a rowed New Use of an Old Term Because M’s ḥātar (“to dig”) is a repurposed word—i.e., a familiar word given a new meaning—the ancient translators could not render it literally if they would maintain the intelligibility of the story.

• G deals with the difficulty by using parabiazomai (“to use force,” “to prevail upon”), which is often used in contexts where one person urges another to undertake some action (e.g., 2Kgs 2:17; Lk 24:29; Acts 16:15). This translation choice may reflect the translator’s lack of exposure to nautical terminology.
• Other books in G employ elaunô (lit. “to go through,” or “travel,” but commonly used for the act of rowing). In 1Kgs 9:27 Hiram’s sailors, who in the Hebrew are “familiar with the sea” (yōd‘é hayyām), are described as “sailors knowledgeable of rowing [or traveling] on sea” (andras nautikous elaunein eidotas thalassan).
• Much like G, S employs a more abstract word, the itpa‘al of the verb ktš (“to strive”), to render ḥtr, and this has the same generalizing effect.

1:9b,13a; 2:10 dry land TYPOLOGY Motif of God's Mighty Deeds The use of yabbāšâ is particularly interesting here. It is associated:

• with the Chaoskampf mythology that undergirds the creation account (Gn 1:1–2:3; cf. Jon 1:9; yabbāšâ is also used in Ps 95:5 wherein God “formed the dry land”);

• with Israel crossing the Yam Sûp (Sea of Reeds) in Ex 14:16,22,29; 15:19; Ps 66:6; Neh 9:11;

• with Israel crossing the Jordan River (Jo 4:22; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:5b). 

Referentially

In Jon 1:13 it probably has a meaning similar to Jon 2:10 (i.e., the shore). In Ex 4:9 and Is 44:3 it underlines a contrast between (some) liquid and dry land.

Typologically

If one takes into account a possible link to the crossing of the Sea of Reeds (Jon 2:5c [M-2:6c]), it may suggest that—after all—God granted Jonah a safe passage, just as he did to Israel in Ex 14. →Jenson (2008, 53) suggests that the mention of “dry land” implies an inversion of the Exodus account: whereas the Egyptians are thrown into the sea and die, Jonah is thrown into the sea and lives.

1:9b Hebrew Rare Word in the Bible “Hebrew” appears almost exclusively in the Pentateuch (and references thereto; e.g., Gn 14:13; Dt 15:12 // Jer 34:9,14) and in the narratives of the battles with Philistines (e.g., 1Sm 4:6; 13:3).

1:9b fear Fear of YHWH in the Storm While the sailors are greatly afraid of the storm, Jonah tells them that he fears the God “who made the sea and the dry land.” These two uses of fear, the human response to the dangers of nature on the one hand and reverence for God on the other, illustrate its primary functions in the Bible.

Fear as Reverence or Obedience

• About 80% of the references to fear concern God.

• Abraham fears God because he was willing to sacrifice Isaac (Gn 22:12).

• The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Prv 1:7).

• An emphasis on the fear of the Lord provides the context for the Shema (Dt 6:2,13).

Fear of God as Terror

• While some might want to see God, Amos reminds them that the day of the Lord will be terrifying (Am 5:18–20).

• The reader is encouraged to hide in the dust from the “terror of Yhwh” (Is 2:10).

• In response to the natural fear of a theophany, God must often assure, “Do not fear” (Gn 15:1).

1:11a,12b calm down Allusion to a Precise Psalm? The sailors ask Jonah how to calm the sea. In one of the only two other occurrences of “be calm” (štq), readers find sailors wishing for calm.

• Ps 107:28–30 “Then they cried to the Lord in their trouble, and he brought them out from their distress; he made the storm be still, and the waves of the sea were hushed. Then they were glad because they had quiet (štq), and he brought them to their desired haven.”

1:13a the men rowed Calming of the Sea In the NT, both the Synoptic and Johannine Gospel traditions convey accounts in which the disciples of Jesus find themselves in a boat that struggles to make headway against a stormy sea (Mk 6:48; Jn 6:16–19).

1:14b innocent blood Motif of Killing the Undeserving The phrase dām nāqî’ (“innocent blood”) connotes the murder of the innocent.

• This can be done on a personal level (Prv 6:17) or on a national scale (Jl 3:19).
• Interestingly, the sailors’ concern for spilling innocent blood recalls Deuteronomy’s prohibition of killing the innocent (cf. Dt 27:25), showing that the sailors are righteous by Deuteronomic standards (cf. Ps 94:21; 106:38; Jer 7:6; 19:4; 22:3).

10f Use in Lectionary

• →CPL: Friday in Pasha Week, 12^th Hour, 2^nd Reading. 

1:8b What is your occupation Unloading the Sailors' Questions

• →Rashi Comm.: The series of questions is directly related to why the storm has come upon them. Have you sinned in your craft? Have your people issued a curse that followed you? Has your people sinned?

1:9b I am a Hebrew Targumic Variation: A Jew

• →Tg. Jon. "I am a Jew."

This may simply reflect a preference for one term over another.

1:7e,15a Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

1:7–12 Calvin's Summarizing Prayer: Jonah as Negative Moral Example

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "Grant, Almighty God, that as thou urgest us daily to repentance…grant that we might not grow stupid in our vices, nor deceive ourselves with empty flatteries, but that each of us may, on the contrary, carefully examine his own life, and then with one mouth and heart confess that we are all guilty, not only of light offenses but of such as deserve eternal death, and that no other relief remains for us but thine infinite mercy, and that we may so seek to become partakers of that grace which has been once offered to us by thy Son, and is daily offered to us by his Gospel."

1:9b I am a Hebrew Why Does Jonah Identify Himself Thus?

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "We now then perceive the reason why Jonah called himself here an Hebrew, and testified that he was the worshiper of the true God. First, by saying that he was an Hebrew, he distinguished the God of Abraham from the idols of the Gentiles…Secondly, he adds, I fear Jehovah the God of heaven. By the word fear is meant worship: for it is not to be taken here as often in other places, that is, in its strict meaning; but fear is to be understood for worship: ‘I am not given,’ he says, ‘to various superstitions, but I have been taught in true religion; God has made himself known to me from my childhood: I therefore do not worship any idol, as almost all other people, who invent gods for themselves; but I worship God, the creator of heaven and earth.'"

1:16a feared Christ's/Jonah's Passion Reveals the True God

• →Gloss. ord. "Before the passion, [the sailors] were shouting to their gods in fear; after the passion, they fear God by worshiping and honoring him, and they sacrifice offerings, which, according to the literal sense, they did not have among the waves but [they did have] the sacrifice of an afflicted spirit."

1:16b offered a sacrifice Did God Approve of Such Sacrifice?

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "It may, however, be inquired, whether that sacrifice pleased God. It is certain that whenever men bring forward their own devices, whatever is otherwise worthy of approbation in what they do, it cannot but be corrupted and vitiated by such a mixture; for God, as it is well known, allows of no associate…God there repudiates all the sacrifices which were wont to be offered by the people of Israel, because superstitions were blended with them. God then shows that such a mixture is so disapproved by him, that he chooses rather that the superstitious should wholly give themselves up to the devils than that his holy name should be thus profaned. Hence this sacrifice of itself was not lawful, nor could it have pleased God; but it was, so to speak, by accident and extrinsically that this sacrifice pleased God—because he designed thus to make known his glory."

1:7b cast lots Elaboration of the Scene

• →Kisāʼī Qiṣaṣ: Recognizing that the lots may be mistaken, the sailors and Yunus write their names on lead balls and cast them into the sea. Yunus’ name floats on the surface.

1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a appointed Insistence on the Verbal Nature of God's Command to Creation The verb “to appoint” is repeated four times (Literary Devices Jon 1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a).

G: “commanded”

• The four occurrences of the pi‘el of mnh (“to appoint,” “to send”) in Jon 1:17; 4:6,7,8 are all translated by prostassô. 
• These are the only four places where this correspondence is found (→Hatch and Redpath 1906, 2:1220).
• Thus, G slightly shifts the language used to depict God’s providential direction of events in the Book of Jonah; whereas his direction of creation is somewhat general and behind-the-scenes in M, G conveys an implicit verbal dimension and a degree of anthropomorphism. This aspect of the translation is addressed by some of the Church Fathers who are uncomfortable with the notion that God would talk to an irrational creature (cf. Christian Tradition Jon 1:17a).
• It moreover emphasizes that God’s word directs the created world.
• As one might expect, the Vetus Latina translates G’s prostassô uniformly with the verb praecipere (“to order,” “to instruct”).

V: Variation in Language

V does not reflect the uniformity of M. Did Jerome prefer the elegance of variatio over philological consistency?

• praeparare (“to prepare”) is used in Jon 1:17 and Jon 4:6;
• parare (“to provide”) is used in Jon 4:7;
• praecipere (“to order,” “to instruct”) is used in Jon 4:8.

S: “prepared” or “commanded”

Like G, S implies that God’s direction of created works involves speech.

• S translates mnh with tyb only at Jon 1:17.
• The remaining three instances (Jon 4:6,7,8) are rendered by pqd + l- (“to command,” “to give an order to”).

1:17a swallow ALLUSION A Fish Tries to Swallow Tobias While journeying, Tobias is attacked by a fish which leaps from the Tigris and tries to devour him (Tb 6:2). With Uriel’s help, Tobias kills and guts the fish. The fish’s entrails are later integral to the book’s happy resolution, restoring Tobit’s sight and protecting Sarah and Tobias from death on their wedding night (cf. Tb 6:7–9).

1:17b three days and three nights TYPOLOGY Allusion to Joseph? 

• →T. Zeb. 4.4 “He [i.e., Joseph] remained in the cistern (Gn 37:23–28) three days and three nights, so that when he was sold he was starving” (→OTP  1:806; cf. Ancient Texts Jon 1:17b).

1:17a a great fish Adapting Jewish Traditions for Children A children's adaptation, Jonah and the Two Great Fish, makes use of the rich speculation and ritual use of Jonah in the Jewish tradition. 

• →Gerstein (1997) writes in the introduction, “In the Jewish tradition many legends have arisen about the characters and events in the Bible. These legends fill in the gaps in the stories with all the details that everyone wants to know: what things and people really looked like, exactly how much of something there was, why something happened, and what happened before and after. Jonah was said to have been a disciple, or student, of the prophet Elisha. It is also told that at what should have been the end of his life, God allowed Jonah to enter Heaven and remain there alive! Here, then, is the story of the prophet Jonah, enriched by these legends. The adaptation therefore includes two fish, the first ‘spacious and well-furnished inside. There was a diamond that shone like the sun. The fish’s eyes were windows and through them Jonah could see all the wonders of the deep,’ while for the second, ‘Inside it was dark and crowded with thirty-six thousand, five hundred baby fish of all kinds.'"
• Some Jewish adaptations explain the reading of Jonah on Yom Kippur and how it relates to the observance of that holiday (e.g., →Prenzlau 1999).

1:17b three days and three nights Prefiguration of the Christian Experience: Persecuted but Victorious

• →Tertullian Res. 32.3 "Now I apprehend that in the case of Jonah we have a fair proof of this divine power, when he comes forth from the fish’s belly uninjured in both his natures—his flesh and his soul. No doubt the bowels of the whale would have had abundant time during three days for consuming and digesting Jonah’s flesh, quite as effectually as a coffin, or a tomb, or the gradual decay of some quiet and concealed grave; only that he wanted to prefigure even those beasts (which symbolize) especially the men who are wildly opposed to the Christian name, or the angels of iniquity, of whom blood will be required by the full exaction of an avenging judgment."

1:17a to swallow Jonah Captain Jonah and the Whale The American comedy duo of Bud Abbot and Lou Costello, whose careers peaked in the 1940s, had a popular routine wherein Costello would try to tell a new joke about “Captain Jonah” but is frustrated by Abbot’s persistent, extraneous questions, such as “What type of whale was it?”

This routine is from the first episode of the Abbott & Costello television show, originally broadcast in 1952.  In addition to their television show, the routine appeared in the film Here Come the Co-Eds (1945). 

2:3a depths Possible Insertion?

Yes

→Wolff (1986, 126) argues that mᵉṣûlâ ("depths") is an insertion—probably of a marginal note—for three reasons:

• The unequivocal meaning (“depths of the seas”) clarifies the ambiguous “heart of the seas.”
• The term lacks an “indispensable” preposition.
• The term disrupts the meter, falling in the middle of a “five-stress line.”

No

→O'Connor (1980, 146–163) has shown that meter inadequately describes the Hebrew poetic system and, at most, appears to be a tertiary feature; whereas matching (or parallelism) plays a much more important role in the system of syntactic constraints that underlie Hebrew verse. As a result, Wolff’s final point need not be accepted. In like manner, his account of the parallel “depths of seas” // “heart of seas” can be dispensed with. Finally, one need only acknowledge that small particles (like prepositions) often fall away in poetry and consistently remain difficult to account for (→Holladay 1999a; →Holladay 1999b).

2:4b Nevertheless Or: "How?" (Hebrew Variant)

• M contains the adverb ’ak at the beginning of v. 4b.
• 4QXII^g (4Q82, fr. 78ii, 82-87:3) exhibits the interrogative adverb ’ēkā[h] with a defective spelling, thus: "how will I again look...?" (→DJD XV, 310).
• Theodotion's reading of pôs supports that of 4QXII^g, while Symmachus (isôs) and G (ara), though inconclusive, would seem to support M (→Ziegler 1984, 247). 
• S and V are aligned with M.

2:5a enveloped Orthographic Variant

• 4QXII^g, fr. 84 contains an orthographic variant: instead of the plene ’ppwny, it has ’ppny (→DJD XV, 310).

2:6c you raised : S | S Manuscript: you raised towards you

• One old Syriac lectionary (11l4, 11^th c.) adds lwtk (towards you).

This variant makes explicit that God not only has saved Jonah (delivered from the corruption) but has drawn the prophet to himself as well.

2:3a,5a surrounded Poetic Non-Sequential Use of the Yiqtol Form In Hebrew poetry the qatal and yiqtol forms sometimes alternate to achieve grammatical parallelism. →Berlin (2008, 36) observes that this kind of qatal-yiqtol shift occurs for stylistic rather than semantic reasons (i.e., it does not indicate a temporal sequence). Thus, the yiqtol of sbb in this verse refers to an action in the past (Grammar Jon 2:3b). 

2:3b passed over Interpretation of Qatal One could justifiably translate ‘br using the pluperfect tense, instead of the simple past: hence, the breakers “had passed over.” Though the qatal is typically rendered with the simple past, it can be more broadly understood to denote action that takes place prior to a given narrative’s time-frame. This translation choice would make even more sense if one wishes to emphasize that the storm has already passed when Jonah finds himself in the calm innards of the fish. See also Grammar Jon 2:3a,5a.

2:8 those who revere Unique Pi‘el Form Mᵉšammᵉrîm is the pi‘el plural participle of the verb šmr (in qal “to keep,” “to observe,” “to celebrate”). Although the pi‘el usually has as an emphatic or intensive sense, here the verb should be understood as having a factitive or causative nuance. Hence it could be woodenly rendered, “those who bring it about that they are observed,” or, more elegantly, “adore,” “worship,” or “revere.” An echo of this passage in qal can be found at Ps 31:6 (M-31:7); perhaps the author intended to link Jonah’s prayer with the psalm (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

2:9b Salvation Ancient Accusative? M divides the phrase as if the last two words of the verse were to create a nominal sentence. Nevertheless, the morphology suggests that the unusual form of the noun, yᵉšû‘ātâ instead of yᵉšû‘â, can be interpreted as a trace of the ancient Hebrew accusative (thus →Gesenius 1847). In that case, the renderings of G and V are accurate.

2:3a,5a surrounded "Growing Phrase" →Magonet (1983, 40) indicates that two instances of sbb (“to surround”) should be interpreted as cumulative or progressive, given the change of subject. First the “river” (or “current”) surrounds Jonah (Jon 2:3) and then, the “abyss” (Jon 2:5). This progressive action—or “growing phrase,” in Magonet’s words—emphasizes downward movement from the water’s surface to the depths (cf. Literary Devices Jon 1:3b,5d; 2:6a).

2:8 revere vain illusions Antithetic Parallel Within the context of Jon 2, as well as in Ps 31 (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8), the text mentions those who “revere vain illusions,” not so much to condemn idol worship, but rather to affirm the importance of worshipping God alone. That is, the text wishes to emphasize what one should not do.

NARRATION Characterization of the Speaker 

Jonah thereby creates an antithetical parallel between himself and idol worshippers which emphasizes his own rectitude as one who worships the God of Israel.

PRAGMATICS Question to the Reader

Finally, the abstract nature of the phrase hablé šāw’ leaves the door open for “relecture”—what are the vain illusions that later readers, including ourselves, might revere?

2:9a sacrifice Sacrifices and Vows Jonah promises to offer a sacrifice and make vows if God saves him. This calls to mind the actions of the Gentile sailors who offered sacrifices and vowed vows after the storm’s miraculous cessation (Jon 1:16).

2:2c the belly of Sheol Underworld ("Mot") as a Voracious Monster, in Ugaritic Literature Thus speaks Baal to his messengers:

• Cycle of Baal 1.4.8.15–19 “But take care, attendants of the god / do not draw near divine Mot, / lest he offer you up like a lamb in his mouth, / like a kid in the opening of his maw!” (→Wyatt 2002, 113). 

2:3a the seas and a river A Synonymous Parallel: Sea and River In Ugaritic myth, Yam (Sea) and Nahar (River) are used in parallel, as if they are synonyms:

• Baal Cycle 1.2.1.45–46: Baal says, “I say to Yam your master, to your l[ord, Ruler Nahar]: hear the word of Hadd the Avenger” (→Wyatt 2002, 63).
• Baal Cycle 1.2.4.19,22 "All-Driver, drive Yam away, drive Yam from his throne, Nahar from the siege of his dominion!…Strike the skull of Prince Yam, between the eyes of Ruler Nahar” (→Wyatt 2002, 67).

2:9a thanksgiving Harmonization in G? M’s tôdâ is rendered by a doublet in G: ainesis kai exomologêsis. This doublet often appears in liturgical texts (G-Is 51:3; Jdt 15:14; Sir 39:20). In turn, M employs a similar doublet, hōdôt wᵉhallēl, in 1Chr 25:3 (cf. 2Chr 20:22).

2:5b seaweed Explicit Link to the Sea of Reeds

• →Tg. Jon. "Sea of Reeds is suspended over my head."

This amplified translation, yām sûp (rather than M: sûp), makes explicit M’s implicit allusion to the Exodus (Vocabulary Jon 2:5b; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:5b).

2:3a you cast me God, Not the Sailors, Cast Jonah into Sea

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. “Jonah shows here what dreadful temptations presented themselves to him while he was endeavoring to offer up prayers. It came first to his mind that God was his most inveterate enemy. For Jonah did not then think of the sailors and the rest who had cast him into the sea; but his mind was fixed on God: this is the reason why he says, ‘Thou, Lord, hadst cast me into the deep, into the heart of the sea’; and then, ‘Thy billows, Thy waves.’”

2:9b what I have vowed Confessional Polemic: Calvin Compares Jonah's Vow to Those of the Church Fathers and the Papists

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "And he afterwards mentions his vows, I will pay, he says, my vows. We have stated elsewhere in what light we are to consider vows. The holy Fathers did not vow to God, as the Papists of this day are wont to do, who seek to pacify God by their frivolous practices; one abstains for a certain time from meat, another puts on sackcloth, another undertakes a pilgrimage, and another obtrudes on God some new ceremony. There was nothing of this kind in the vows of the holy Fathers; but a vow was the mere act of thanksgiving, or a testimony of gratitude: and so Jonah joins his vows here with the sacrifice of praise. We hence learn that they were not two different things; but he repeats the same thing twice. Jonah, then, had declared his vow to God for no other purpose but to testify his gratitude."

2:10 And YHWH Paragraph Demarcations 

• At Jon 2:10 (M-2:11), M has paragraph demarcations (vacant spaces) prior to (sᵉtûmâ) and following (pᵉtûḥâ).
• 4QXII^g has a vacant space only prior to Jon 2:10. Thus, this verse appears to belong to the next unit of Jon 3 (cf. →DJD XV, 311).

2:10 Yhwh spoke Literary Structures in G: A Double Inclusio In G, there is a double inclusio between Jon 1:17 and Jon 2:10:

• The divine passive "it was commanded" (prosetagê) forms an inclusio with Jon 1:17 where the same verb (prosetaxen) is used. This explains why the translator chose to render wayyō’mer with prosetagê in Jon 2:10, since this is not a particularly close correspondance.
• Similarly, the verb “cast out” (exebalen) concludes the sea scene begun in Jon 1:15 when the sailors “cast” (exebalon) Jonah into the sea.

2:10 Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

2:10 vomited Jonah Preserved by Miraculous Means

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "It was an incredible miracle, that Jonah should have continued alive and safe in the bowels of the fish for three days. For how was it that he was not a thousand times smothered or drowned by waters? We know that fish continually draw in water: Jonah could not certainly respire while in the fish; and the life of man without breathing can hardly continue for a minute. Jonah, then, must have been preserved beyond the power of nature. Then how could it have been that the fish should cast forth Jonah on the shore, except God by his unsearchable power had drawn the fish there? Again, who could have supernaturally opened its bowels and its mouth? His coming forth, then, was in every way miraculous, yea, it was attended with many miracles."

2:10 YHWH spoke to the fish The Fish Hears God's Voice

• →Wesley Notes "Though fishes understand not as man, yet they have ears to hear their Creator."

1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a Yhwh appointed + God Appointed — NARRATION Characterization of God through Continuity of Action In the Book of Jonah, the same verb mnh ("appoint") is used four times to describe God’s dealings with Jonah, although it is sometimes translated differently depending on the context (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a). He “appoints” different elements of his creation to shape the fate of his reluctant prophet and to communicate to him. Nature’s role in the book manifests God’s control over the cosmos as a whole—even including stubborn human beings like Jonah. Indeed, as we have seen with the storm and the sea-monster, nature is more obedient than Jonah himself.

Nature reprises its role in Jon 4 wherein comfort (Jon 4:6) gives way to discomfort piled on top of discomfort (Jon 4:7–8). God commands a plant to grow; then he commands a worm to kill it. Meanwhile he marshals the sun and a scorching wind against Jonah, before revealing to Jonah his solicitude for the multitudes of Nineveh and their cattle.

2:3a the seas See Literary Devices Jon 1:4ab the sea.

2:10 on the dry land The Euxine or Black Sea

• →Josephus A.J. 9.212–213 “It is also reported that Jonah was swallowed down by a whale, and that when he had been there three days, and as many nights, he was vomited out upon the Euxine Sea, and this alive, and without any hurt upon his body.”

1:3b,5d; 2:6a descended Repetition, Meaning: Inverted Symbolism of Directions

Ever Higher

Elsewhere in the Bible, departure from Jerusalem is always descent while movement toward the Holy City is always ascent. Movement to and from Egypt is similarly rendered.

Ever Lower

In Jonah the verb yārad appears four times. Whereas Jon 1:2 suggests that to get to the Lord’s face, one needs to “ascend,” Jonah decisively takes the opposite direction. He descends first to Joppa, then to the ship (Jon 1:3) (2x), then to the bottom of it (Jon 1:5), to finish with a descent to the “roots of the mountains” in his prayer (Jon 2:6 [= V-2:7]).

• In one sense, the terminology bears the weight of prophetic call and response. The cry of Nineveh’s evil has come up to Yhwh and Jonah is commissioned to “go down” to Nineveh.
• On another level, the theme of descent gathers narrative weight throughout the story. First Jonah goes down to Joppa and finds a ship that he goes down into (Jon 1:3). Later, when the sea is raised to rage by the wind of God, the reader finds that Jonah has already gone down further into the ship’s bowels and is fast asleep (Jon 1:5). In their attempts to calm the storm, the sailors follow Jonah’s command to throw him overboard. Cast from the ship, Jonah begins the unexpected journey further down into the sea inside the belly of the great fish. Therein, his prayer records his descent (I descended) to “rock bottom”—the ’ereṣ at the bottom of the sea which is the gates of the Pit—and declares Yhwh’s ability to redeem from the deepest depths (Jon 2:6).

1:1 the word of YHWH was to Prophetic Word Formula (Wortereignisformel)

Prophetic Commission

The phrase occurs more than 40 times in the Book of Ezekiel alone. It can be found regularly embedded within large narrative sections, such as with Elijah (1Kgs 17:2,8; 18:1).

Divine Information

The phrase does not necessarily bring about a prophetic commission; God may simply be communicating with a human being, as with Abram (Gn 15:1) or Solomon (1Kgs 6:11).

In the Book of the Twelve

The phrase is lacking only in Obadiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. If one were to approach this phrase from a form-critical perspective, Jonah can easily be related to other prophetic literature. However, as →Trible (1994, 124–125) points out, the formula as an opener with no content can lead readers to the conclusion that this story is about Jonah himself, rather than the words he is commissioned to speak.

1:3f RHETORIC Dispositio: Anadiplosis (Repetition)

• The author both concludes Jon 1:3 and begins Jon 1:4 with the divine name. In order to do this, the typical Hebrew word order is ignored and the subject is moved to the head of the sentence.

Thus is emphasized Jonah's failure to escape from the presence of the Lord.

1:3c paid its fare How Much? There is both ancient and contemporary disagreement about how much Jonah paid and for what he paid.

• →b. Ned. 38a: Some (e.g., R. Yohanan) contend that, in order to insure the ship’s immediate departure, Jonah paid for all the available spots on the ship so that the captain did not need to wait for others to come. This would have been an enormous expense, but it shows Jonah’s desperation or eagerness.
• →ibn Ezra Comm. and others disagree, having the more common-sense interpretation that he paid the fare of a single passenger. 

→Sasson (1990, 83–84) conveys these opposing views and outlines contemporary differences of opinion. He himself sides with the position that Jonah hired the whole ship.

1:4a But YHWH hurled RHETORIC Dispositio: Emphasis through Inversion This verse emphasizes the subject—the Lord—by placing it before the verb rather than employing the standard verb-subject order found elsewhere in Biblical Hebrew.

1:7c on whose account Persian Aramaic Calque? This expression might be an Aramaic calque (bldy) from the Persian period.

Morphology

The lemma (in Hebrew bᵉšellᵉmî) is a composite of four elements (lit. “on” + “whom” + “to” + “who?”):

• the preposition b-;
• the relative particle š-;
• the preposition l-;
• the interrogative pronoun mî.

The force of the lemma, based on the first element, is that of a prepositional phrase.

Date

Although the relative particle shin (š) is derived from proto-Semitic, it was not used in Classical Biblical Hebrew (’ăšer was preferred), until Aramaic influenced the language. Hence Jonah’s use of bᵉšellᵉmî is evidence that its Hebrew is relatively late.

1:7a And each man said to his companion Syntax A more literal rendering of wayyō’mᵉrû ’îš ’el rē‘ēhû would be, “And they said, each to his companion,” which works well in English.

Distributive Subject

The construction of the plural verb and singular noun ’îš expresses that the same action is performed by the singular subjects: “each one said”; see also Grammar Jon 1:5b.

Reciprocal Action

Likewise this construction expresses reciprocity: “to each other” (as in Gn 11:1,3; Jgs 6:29; 1Sm 10:11; 20:41). Therefore one can translate it simply as, “they said to one another.”

1:9b,13a; 2:10 the dry land Leitwort With all its theological significance (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10), “dry land” also appears as a Leitwort in Jonah.

1:17b Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

2:1 Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

2:4b your holy Temple Stained-Glass of Jonah The scroll presented by Jonah reads:

• RURSUM VIDEBO TEMPLUM SANCTUM DOMINI: "Again shall I see the holy Temple of the Lord.” 

17f; 2:10 fish Three Consecutively Swallowed Fish?

• The three fish may refer to the rabbinic exegesis identifying three different animals, because of the apparent shift in their grammatical genders (Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10).

2:1 "The Prayer of Jonah" Syriac Heading S includes a heading to this section.

2:8 Those who revere vain illusions Theological Polemic: Jonah's Reliance on Faith over Works

• →Luther Lect. Jon. "With this verse Jonah rebukes the foolish work-righteous and hypocrites, who do not rely solely on God’s grace but on their own works. He rebukes the same people because they do not know what faith is, because they have never been in distress where they might have learned how beneficial faith is and how ineffective good works are, and because they do not change but they depreciate grace and appreciate their own doing. Jonah declares that this is vanity."

2:1–9 From the Prayer of Jonah to the Psalter

Medieval Illumination

Jonah becomes a model for praying in distress.

2:10 TYPOLOGY Elijah and Elisha as Types of Jonah See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f.

1:3a Tarshish The Meanings of Tarshish

• →Gloss. ord. "According to Josephus, it is the city of Cilicia; according to Chronicles, the place is in India (cf. 2Chr 9:21). But the Hebrews believed that the sea generally is called Tharsis. Whence ‘with a vehement breath you will pound to pieces the ships of Tharsis (cf. Ps 48:7)—that is, the sea. It is more fitting for a fearful, fugitive man that he does not choose a specific place for his flight, but is content to be carried away wherever the sea takes him" (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3a).

The Glossa also records a number of mystical interpretations of Tarshish and the flight in general.

• →Gloss. ord. "Mystically, Christ, having assumed the flesh, in a certain way fleeing his homeland—that is heaven—comes to Tharsis—that is, the sea of this world—in which he called out, ‘My Father, if it be possible, let this chalice pass from me’ (Mt 26:39), for fear that, the people of the Jews having been damned, the multitude of the Gentiles would believe. And he loved that people so much, on account of his love for the patriarchs and the promise to Abraham, that on the cross he said, ‘Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do’ (Lk 23:34). For on account of this love, when he was on the farthest point of the shore (which was said to be the most beautiful because it was in Judea), he does not want to take bread from the children and give it to the dogs. But because he had come to the sheep of Israel, he pays the fare of the ferrymen so that he who had come at first to save his own people might save the people who dwell near the sea, and so that in the midst of storms—that is, his passion and cries on the cross—submerged in hell, he might save those whom he was neglecting, it would seem, by sleeping on a ship."
• →Gloss. ord. "The human race may be signified by the flight of the prophet, when, scorning the commands of God, it withdrew from his face and handed itself over to the world, and later, with the shipwreck of the world raging against it, it is compelled to turn back to him whom it fled. And those things which it had thought sources of salvation for itself are turned into destruction."

2:4b,7b your holy Temple Same Phrase In vv. 4b and 7b the same phrase appears (’el hékal qodšekā), linking the two verses. What is impossible for vision, is possible through prophetic insight. See the Sitz im Leben in Literary Genre Jon 2:1–9.

2:1–9 Myth and Mythemes in Jonah's Psalm Numerous mythic fragments (mythemes) from ancient Canaan and Mesopotamia appear throughout Scripture. Jonah’s thanksgiving prayer offers a prime example (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:1–9).

• Repeated references to the sea (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a) and the waters recall related personified nature deities from ancient cultures.

• References to mountain crevasses and the bars of the earth (i.e., the nether world; cf. Vocabulary Jon 2:6ab), as well as Jonah’s drowning and strangulation, indirectly invoke the deity Death (Ancient Texts Jon 2:6a).

2:10 vomited Possible Connotation in S: Giving Birth The Syriac verb plṭ can generally be glossed as "eject" or "escape" in the pe‘al stem.  Depending on the context, it can have more specific meanings such as "vomit," "spit out," or even "to be removed from an enclosed space." Perhaps related to this last possible meaning of the verb, there are instances where plṭ is used figuratively for the act of giving birth. See, for example,

• →bar Hebraeus Laugh. St. 105.19: “My brother and I are twins and were removed (or ‘escaped’) from the womb at the same time.”

Although the translator of S may not have intended to evoke this figurative connotation of plṭ, it is this very term—along with m‘ayyā in Jon 1:17–2:1—that inspired a particular exegetical thread among the Syriac Fathers (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:17b–2:1).

1:3d to Tarshish Hebrew Variant: With Them of Tarshish

• 4QXII^g (4Q82 f76-78i+79-81:7) omits the directional marker (-h) in the third occurrence of the word "Tarshish" (→DJD XV, 309).
• It is possible that 4QXII^a (4Q76 5:6) also omits the directional marker, but its fragmentary state leaves this uncertain since only one letter of the word (the second shin) is visible (→DJD XV, 229). 
• One possible reading of this variant is  "to go with them of Tarshish," thus identifying the sailors as citizens of the city. 

1:1ff God Surprises the Prophet; Jonah Surprises the Reader An (a)typical prophetic commission comes to a typical prophet, characterizing Nineveh as a new Sodom. Will the prophet respond in the manner of Abraham and heed God? Will his response fit the reader’s expectations of a prophet? In a book of surprises, the first is that a prophet is sent to Nineveh. The second is that he flees.

An Unusual Prophetic Beginning

It is never announced that Jonah is a prophet, but the structure of the opening leaves no doubt. The story opens the way many stories about prophets open (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1 the word), with the commissioning of a task (Literary Genre Jon 1:1). The surprise, though, is the response of the prophet who, when commanded to get up and go, gets up and flees.

Nineveh as a New Sodom

Nineveh, steeped in biblical intertextuality, is presented in overtly negative ways (esp. Nahum) (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 Nineveh). The subtle allusion to Sodom in M is emphasized in later textual traditions (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:2; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2 their evil) and noted in the reception history (Christian Tradition Jon 1:1–11; Christian Tradition Jon 1:2).

Focus on the Character of Jonah

The opening indicates that we are dealing with prophetic material, but unlike other prophetic texts, readers are given little information about the prophet himself (other than his patronym), his time, and his location (Literary Devices Jon 1:1). This allows for reflection on 

• his name (Vocabulary Jon 1:1),
• biblical intertextuality (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1 Yona son of Amittai),
• historicization (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:1; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1 Yona son of Amittai).

Jonah Flees

The motivation for Jonah’s flight is not given at this point, and the reader must wait several chapters for more information on this. The curiosity of the reader is piqued, and many interpreters have reflected on the prophet’s surprising behavior (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:3a; Christian Tradition Jon 1:3a to flee).

1:1; 3:1 the word of Yhwh was to Semantics The phrase wayhî + dᵉbar-YHWH + ’el is usually rendered by the verb of movement "the word of YHWH came to…" For instance,

• “Now the word of the LORD came unto Jonah” (KJV);
• “Now the word of the Lord came to Jonas” (DRV);
• “Now the word of the Lord came to Jonas” (Brenton).

Nevertheless, all ancient versions keep in their translations some form of the verb “to be,” or “to become.” This grammatical construction led to our interpreting "the word of YHWH" as an active subject (hypostatization). Others argue that this formula simply means that communication has occurred. Therefore, this expression is as minimally descriptive as possible (see Literary Genre Jon 1:1).

1:2 for Causal Clause The kî ("for") clause is most probably causal, given the general theme of the book; moreover, the message's content is not specified. Less likely the clause is objective.

1:1 Yona son of Amittai Relative De-contextualization Although we are given the prophet’s name and patronym, we do not have any other indication of historical context, unlike other prophetic books. See, for example,

• Hos 1:1: “The word of the Lord that was to Hosea the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel”;
• Am 1:1: “The words of Amos, who was among the herdmen of Tekoa…in the days of Uzziah king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake.”

The author seems to be unconcerned, maybe intentionally so, with informing us of the story’s historical circumstances. Similarly, the Books of Joel, Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Malachi provide little context.

1:2–3:8 Leitwort "Call Out": Jonah as a Story about "Calling" The verb qr’, “to call, to cry out,” occurs eight times within the story.

Main Theme?

"Calling," with all its polysemous qualities (speaking in the name of God—proclamation—and speaking to God—prayer), is a significant theme of the story.

Structural Repetition

Its occurrences reveal the basic structure of the narrative.

• The first divine mandate (Jon 1:2) is that Jonah “calls out against Nineveh.” Since he himself is disobedient to this divine call, the order is echoed by the sailors (Jon 1:6): “Get up! Call out!” When Jonah still does not follow this order of calling, it is the sailors who “called out” to YHWH (Jon 1:14).
• It is only in the innards of the fish that Jonah follows their example and calls out to YHWH (Jon 2:2 [V-2:3]).
• After that turning point, God repeats his first order (Jon 3:2), and Jonah accomplishes his mission (Jon 3:4). As a result, the people of Nineveh “called for a fast” (Jon 3:5) and their own king orders them to “call out” to YHWH (Jon 3:8).

1:2 great Leitwort (cf. also Jon 1:4,10,12,16; 2:1; 3:2–3,5,7; 4:1,6,11).

Through its repetitive usage, the term “great” contributes to the story’s larger than life character.

In the Context of Jonah: Trace of Orality?

• The adjective “great” (gādôl) occurs 14 times in Jonah, with four of them referring to Nineveh (Jon 1:2; 3:2–3; 4:11); the others to great wind and storm (Jon 1:4,12), fear of sailors (Jon 1:10,16), fish (Jon 2:1), the “great ones” of Nineveh (Jon 3:5,7), evil and joy in Jonah’s eyes (Jon 4:1,6).
• Repetition, rather than utilizing synonyms, suits story and mythology more so than history—a hint to how we should read the Book of Jonah. Literarily, it achieves simplicity and emphasizes the book’s orality.

In the Context of the Twelve: Exaggeration

• The instances of the adjective gādôl in Jonah comprise 25% of its appearances in the Book of the Twelve, a sign of the story’s tendency toward exaggeration.

A Narrative Characterization of God through His Works?

• A focus on the superlative trades on the multivalence of the term which can at once intimate the magnitude and power of Nineveh and the natural elements of wind, sea, and fish that are put to work by Yhwh. In doing so, the narrative conveys indirect qualitative assessments of the essential goodness and importance of these entities, which God recognizes despite Jonah’s inability to do so.

• Though God is not described as gādôl in the text, readers are drawn to the conclusion that greatness of cities and the natural world cannot compare to Yhwh’s own greatness as “God of the heavens…who made the sea and the dry land” (Jon 1:9).

1:1 Now, the word of Yhwh was to Yona son of Amittai Prophetic Word Formula

“Now”: A Prophetic or Narrative Marker?

The wayyiqtol form of hyh is a common grammatical feature opening narratives (Grammar Jon 1:1; Literary Devices Jon 1:1ff), but it is uncommon at the opening of a prophetic book. Jonah alone among the Minor Prophets begins this way.

• Some see this as suggesting that Jonah is one tale among others that previously circulated together.
• Others view this as an acceptable opening form for beginning a narrative, akin to a drop-capital or a decorated initial (→Wolff 1986, 95).

“The word of YHWH was to": Wortereignisformel

A prophetic commission is regularly conveyed with this phrase (Grammar Jon 1:1; 3:1). As the most formulaic expression for establishing a prophetic commission, the examples are too numerous to list (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1 the word of YHWH was to).

• This expression follows the pattern “the word of the king is to...” (2Sm 14:17; 24:4).
• An analogous formula occurs as an epistolary introduction in the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Late Babylonian periods. It is applied to the words of individuals vested with some authority (→Meier 1992, 314–316).

“Yona son of Amittai”

See Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1.

1:3–16 Ships and Seafaring in the ANE  Water travel was practiced in the ANE at least as early as 10,000 B.C. Given the likely deterioration and decomposition of ships over millennia, little survives that could be excavated, and the best information comes from artistic renderings.  

Attestations

• The best preserved example of an ancient boat is that of Cheops/Khufu, which was excavated near the Giza pyramids. See →Wachsmann 1998, 219.

History

• The earliest boats were towed or punted; the earliest evidence for sails dates to around 3500 B.C.
• By 2500 B.C., there is ample evidence of long distance seafaring, which likely gave rise to developments in mathematics and astronomy.
• Egyptian maritime interests were concerned with imports, whereas the Phoenicians developed colonies throughout the Mediterranean basin.
• Solomon is said to have partnered with Hyram of Tyre to build a fleet to sail out of Ezion-Geber (near present-day Aqaba) on the Red Sea (1Kgs 9:26–28; 10:11,22; 2Chr 8:18; 9:21).
• By the Persian period, sea-going vessels tended to be shallow, being 10–18 m long, having a width of 1/3 the length, and employing rounded hulls and single sails. They were able to transport up to 250 tons. As we see in Jonah, these ships were often fully or partially decked—since Jonah is able to go below deck—and tended to follow the coastline, suggested by the fact that the sailors hoped to be able to row back to shore.

A Boat from Jonah's Era

• The Ma‘agan Michael Ship, discovered off the coast of Ma‘agan Michael, Israel, in 1985, is a unique example of a Levantine ship built in the same era that Jonah was composed. In fact, it is the oldest extant ship from the era of Persian dominance in the ANE. At 12.5 m long and 4 m wide it bore a single sail and was likely maintained by a crew of 4–6 sailors as it plied the open waters of the Mediterranean. At the time of its demise, it was carrying a cargo of Greek blueschist stone, used primarily for roofing. Today the boat is on display at Haifa University’s Hecht Museum.
• At the same museum, one can consult a model of an 8^th c. Phoenician merchant ship after an Assyrian relief from the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad.

Here, Prof. E. Nantet explains maritime archaeology to the contributors to this edition of Jonah (July 7^th, 2019). Part of the retrieved blue stones of the cargo is displayed on the ground.

1:2; 3:2b call out + call to — Common Imperative Directed to the Prophets The verb qr’  is one of the most often repeated keywords (see also Jon 1:6,14; 2:2; 3:2,4–5,8; cf. Literary Devices Jon 1:2).

This verb is often used as a technical term that instructs the prophet as to what he is to say or do; e.g., 1Kgs 13:32; Is 40:2,6; 58:1; Jer 3:12; 7:2; 11:6; 19:2; Zec 1:14,17; Jl 3:9 (M-4:9). 

1:2 their evil (G) Typological Allusion to the Episode of Sodom and Gomorrha It is possible that the translator of G chose to render M’s rā‘ātām (“their evil”) with hê kraugê tês kakias autês (“the outcry of its wickedness”) in order to establish a connection between the story of Jonah and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in Gn 18–19  (cf. Comparison of Versions Jon 1:2).

• Both stories begin with a note that the outcry (kraugê) of an evil city has reached God (G-Gn 18:20–21; Jon 1:2; cf. G-Gn 19:13), which is a distinctive way of expressing that God has noticed the rampant injustice and violence that characterizes these cities.
• In Jonah this outcry is connected with Nineveh’s wickedness (kakia), while in the Genesis narrative it is the sins (hamartiai) of the city that cause the outcry to reach God. Such a connection would invite the reader to consider Jonah as an anti-type of Abraham, and Nineveh as an anti-type of Sodom and Gomorrah.
• Whereas Abraham was intently concerned for the plight of the innocent inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah, Jonah desires the complete destruction of Nineveh, regardless of the innocence or guilt of its people.
• On the other hand, Sodom and Gomorrah are so depraved that they contain no righteous citizens (Gn 18:32; 19:4): no amount of pleading will spare them. Nineveh, though initially filled with iniquity, exhibits a kind of righteousness when the people respond to Jonah’s exceedingly tepid proclamation (Jon 3:4) with complete repentance.

For an early comparison of Nineveh to Sodom, see Tertullian’s poem on Jonah (Christian Tradition Jon 1:1–11).

1:2 Nineveh Why Was God So Concerned with Saving Nineveh?

• →ibn Ezra Comm. held that the Ninevites had only recently become sinful; nor were they guilty of idolatry, since the destruction of idols is not mentioned as part of their repentance.
• →Kimchi Comm. held that the sins of Nineveh, robbery and oppression, paralleled those of Sodom and the generation of the Deluge (Gn 6:11). Such sins were so destructive to the created order that God had to intervene.
• →Malbim Gé’ ḥizzāyôn taught that God intended Assyria to be the "rod of his anger" (Is 10:5), by destroying the kingdom of Israel and exiling the Ten Tribes. In order to execute God's justice against Israel, however, Assyria had to become more just than Israel. Hence, Jonah was dispatched. 

1:1 Yona son of Amittai Muslim Jonah

Listed among the Prophets

While the book of Jonah does not call Jonah a prophet, the Qur'an lists him among the greatest of the tradition:

• →Qur’an 4.163 "We inspire thee as We inspired Noah and the prophets after him, as We inspired Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and Jesus and Job and Jonah and Aaron and Solomon, and as We imparted unto David the Psalms" (cf. →Qur’an 6.84–86). 
• →Qur’an 10 bears his name.  

Jonah’s Parents

• →Kisāʼī Qiṣaṣ describes Jonah's parents, the prophet Matthew and Sadaqa, as Jerusalemites who were unable to conceive. At the age of 70, Sadaqa gives birth to Jonah but soon finds herself as a poor widow, with only a wooden bowl which Allah fills with meat at night. Local shepherds allow the infant to suckle from their ewes.

1:3a And Jonah got up to flee to Tarshish The Sermon in Moby Dick Father Mapple’s sermon focuses almost solely on Jon 1–2, elaborating often on aspects that the text neglects, such as the negotiation of the fare or the size of Jonah’s cabin below deck. The sermon is delivered to men about to embark on long whaling voyages, from a pulpit that has many characteristics of a ship, such as a rope ladder (Cinema Jon 1:5–17).

• →Melville Moby Dick, ch. 9 "With this sin of disobedience in him, Jonah still further flouts at God, by seeking to flee from Him. He thinks that a ship made by men will carry him into countries where God does not reign, but only the Captains of this earth. He skulks about the wharves of Joppa, and seeks a ship that’s bound for Tarshish. There lurks, perhaps, a hitherto unheeded meaning here. By all accounts Tarshish could have been no other city than the modern Cadiz. That’s the opinion of learned men. And where is Cadiz, shipmates? Cadiz is in Spain; as far by water, from Joppa, as Jonah could possibly have sailed in those ancient days, when the Atlantic was an almost unknown sea. Because Joppa, the modern Jaffa, shipmates, is on the most easterly coast of the Mediterranean, the Syrian; and Tarshish or Cadiz more than two thousand miles to the westward from that, just outside the Straits of Gibraltar. See ye not then, shipmates, that Jonah sought to flee world-wide from God? Miserable man! Oh! most contemptible and worthy of all scorn; with slouched hat and guilty eye, skulking from his God; prowling among the shipping like a vile burglar hastening to cross the seas" (45).

1:2 Get up Jonah as an Invitation to Take the Next Step In the words of the singer-songwriter Bruce Cockburn:

• "I was in St. Louis, looking out of a hotel room window at the sun coming up on the other side of the Mississippi. I’d been up all night, worrying about the things going on in my life. The song relates to the Jonah story in the Bible. It’s addressed to me. I’m Jonah, telling myself to get off my ass and do whatever I was supposed to be doing. Something about the track I was on was wrong. I was satisfied with the status quo. Get Up Jonah is about accepting an invitation, from the cosmos, to take the next step. I really like that song, though I haven’t done it for a long time" (Wheeler Brad, "Bruce Cockburn: A Life in Seven Songs," Globe and Mail, interview on September 11, 2017).

Lyrics

• “I woke up thinking about Turkish drummers / It didn’t take long / I don’t know much about Turkish drummers / But it made me think of Germany and the guy who sold me cigarettes / Who’d been in the Afghan secret police / Who made the observation that it’s hard to live / Then I was reminded of the proprietor of a Vietnamese restaurant in Quebec / Who used to be head of the secret police in Da Nang / And it occurred to me I was thinking about all this stuff / To keep from thinking about something else / Isn’t that just what secret police are all about? / Somebody stands in a window / Watches the river roll / Trains rumble in the foreground / With the weight of approaching dawn / Flames from the refinery / Rise broken, red and riveting / And the high vault of heaven / Looks far away and cold / There’s howling in the factory yard / There’s pounding in my head / I’m swollen up with unshed tears / Bloated like the dead / (Instrumental break) / Blood and ashes—time burning / On the skyline dark against the stars / A solitary horseman, waiting / Lashed to the wheel / Whipping into the storm / Get up, Jonah / It’s your time to be born.”

1:4a great Hebrew Vorlage of G G lacks the adjective at this point.

• Because mega is found in Symmachus' text (G Ms 86), this may suggest that the minus is due to an error (→Ziegler 1984, 244),
• but it is also possible that the Vorlage lacked gdwlh.

1:5a The sailors Technical Word (Etymology) The Hebrew and Aramaic word for "sailor," mallaḥ, comes from Sumarian via the Akkadian malāhu (Literary Devices Jon 1:5a).

1:5b each man cried out to his god Distributive Subject The verb form in the Hebrew is plural ("they cried") but the subject is singular, ’îš ("man").

• The use of ’îš indicates a distributive subject: "each one cried to his god."

The behavior indicated by the verb is performed independently by each of the men. It is a further indication that the sailors worship multiple deities rather than the God of Israel.

1:5d descended SYNTAX Ambiguous Verbal Contrast Jonah is narrated using the simple past preterite (wayyiqtol), but qal verbal forms punctuate the narration. These variations invite the reader to note the disruptions in the narrative’s flow. Sometimes these disruptions demarcate turning points in the story. So here, in contrast to the repeated form depicting the actions of the sailors (wayyiqtol), Jonah’s descent (yārad) into the recesses of the ship is represented with a qal verbal form. The sense is adversative.

Deeper analysis of the syntatical forms employed in this narrative disruption distinguishes them according to tense, aspect, and mood.

Tense (Ambiguity)

When the verbal system is considered in terms of tense, Jonah’s descent may be regarded as:

• either simultaneous: “meanwhile he went down,”
• or anterior (i.e., pluperfect): “he had gone down,”

relative to the simple past preterite (wayyiqtol) actions of the sailors. They (sequentially) become afraid, cry out, and jettison the cargo. The Hebrew verbal system does not clarify tense any further.

Aspect (Perfect)

Grammatically,the verb used to describe Jonah’s descent has a perfect aspect. The narrative maintains an external vantage point while recounting in parallel two event sequences, the sailors’ (wayyiqtol) and Jonah’s (qal; Literary Devices Jon 1:5d).

Modality (Realis)

Modality concerns the relative knowability or possibility of a given action. Some verb forms (wayyiqtol, qal) connote clearly known actions, conditions, states, or processes and therefore concern realia. By contrast, some verb forms (wᵉqātal, yiqtol) reflect increased levels of contingency and concern irrealia, i.e., unreal, possible, statements (this includes the future). Verb forms in this category merit a more generous application of modal verbs (e.g., can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would) or adverbs in translation. Considering modality, then, Jonah’s descent is a realis.

The narrator not only maintains a similar vantage point on Jonah and the sailors (aspect), but also presents the same level of knowledge concerning his actions. Just as the sailors clearly scramble to keep the ship afloat, Jonah clearly descends to the lower deck of the ship. For the narrator, it is clear that Jonah does not join the crew in doing all in their power to save the vessel.

1:5 RHETORIC Parallel Ternary Verbal Groups The actions of the sailors and that of Jonah are grouped into two sets of three verbs.

• The sailors fear, pray, and hurl,
• while Jonah descends, lays down, and sleeps.

1:6b What is it with you that Accusing Question While the form is that of a question, the meaning need not be interrogative but accusatory (e.g., →Joüon and Muraoka [2008, §161.b] translate Jon 4:4 "you are really angry"; cf. Wolff 1986, 169). The Hebrew mâ lᵉkā conveys an accusation in the form of a question, which, throughout the Bible, appears in exchanges from superiors to inferiors (see Gn 20:9; Is 3:15; 22:1; Ez 18:2). Likewise Jesus' exclamation ti emoi kai soi (Jn 2:4) may be a translation of this Hebrew idiom.

1:5c the vessels which were in the ship Amphorae? The excavation of shipwrecks can help us understand what the ancients were shipping. Jars, for example, are often marked with names, showing that a single ship served many merchants. →Gagarin and Fantham (2010, 3:96–97) provide a sample list of shipwrecks with their cargo.

4–10 TYPOLOGY Jonah and Noah The two best known nautically themed stories of the OT exhibit structural and thematic similarities.

Plot

• God sees the wickedness (rā‘â) of human beings: the evil’s scope is more universal in Genesis (Gn 6:5; Jon 1:2).

• Forty days: the duration of the storm (Gn 7:17) and the grace period until God’s judgment (Jon 3:4).

• Sacrifice: Noah, the sailors (Jon 1:16), and Jonah (Jon 2:9) offer sacrifices in response to God’s salvation from the waters (Gn 8:20–21).

Characters and Actors

• Animals: God’s concern for animals is ambiguous in Genesis, for, on the one hand, he saves the animals from the flood, but, on the other hand, he then gives them to Noah and his descendants to eat (Gn 7:2–3). His solicitude for animals in Jonah seems clearer (Jon 4:11). Incidentally, the presence of animals in these two stories may account for why they are the two most popular stories for biblical children’s literature (cf. →Introduction §3.13).

• Large populations: Noah’s story emphasizes the multitude of people on the earth (Gn 6:1), while Jonah’s notes the immensity of Nineveh’s population (Jon 1:2; 4:11).

• Dove: Noah releases a dove to check whether the floodwaters have receded (Gn 8:8), and Jonah’s name means “dove” (Jon 1:1).

Motifs

• Power over creation: divinely ordained storms prevail over the face of the earth (mountains, etc.; cf. Gn 7:19) and threaten Jonah’s ship (Jon 1:4).

• Salvation from water: God rescues our two protagonists from the waters of chaos by commanding Noah to build an ark (Gn 6:14) and the sea-monster to swallow Jonah (Jon 1:17).

• Sin and Forgiveness: depending on how one interprets Gn 6:3, God either gives humanity 120 years to repent—during which time, it is said, Noah exhorts repentance—or he simply chooses Noah and his family alone to be saved. At any rate, no one else has repented and joined Noah by the time the storms begin. Apart from the ark, all of humanity and animal life is destroyed in the flood (Gn 7:21–23). In the Book of Jonah, on the other hand, God’s call to conversion is wildly successful (Jon 3:10). Why God acts differently is unambiguous if one accepts the traditional interpretation that Noah spent 120 years calling for repentance. The Ninevites repented and found mercy, whereas the men of Noah’s time failed to repent. If, however, God does not call for repentance through Noah, we can wonder why the same offer of mercy is not made in the story of Noah.

1:5b cried out to his god Targumic Polemical Amplification

• →Tg. Jon. "... and each man prayed to his idol, but they saw that they were useless."

1:6c think of Targumic Free Translation

• →Tg. Jon. "Have mercy" (yitraḥém).

Maybe the rarity of the Hebrew root ‘št, “to think of,” led the Targum to translate it freely. Interestingly, the Targum does not appeal to the Aramaic use of the root in Dn 6:3 (M-6:4).

1:5e fast asleep

Theological Meaning of "Sleep"

• →Gloss. ord. "The heavy sleep of the prophet signifies man languishing in the slumber of his going astray, for whom it does not suffice to flee from the face of God, but beyond that, overcome by a certain madness, he ignores the wrath of God, and he sleeps without care, and his deep sleep resounds through raucous nostrils."
• →Gloss. ord. "Tropologiam: Many are those who, sailing with Jonah and having their own gods, hasten to go think of merrymaking, but after Jonah had been caught by lot, and by that man’s death the storm of the world was calmed, and peace was restored on the sea, then the one God will be adored, and spiritual offerings will be sacrificed, which according to the literal sense (iuxta litteram) they did not have in the midst of the waves."

Reading between the Lines: Why Did Jonah Go to Sleep?

Several patristic authors offer their thoughts on how it is that Jonah could have gone to sleep in the middle of such a perilous storm. While some attribute it to Jonah’s emotional state, others opt to explain it away by reinterpreting the timeline of events.

Jonah Slept for Psychological Reasons

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. initially attributes Jonah’s ability to sleep to a natural disposition: “With respect to the history, the secure mental state of the prophet is being described; he is not disturbed by the storm, nor by the dangers, but he bears the same spirit in calm and when shipwreck threatens.” Yet, he immediately qualifies this, explaining that Jonah recognized the storm was a result of his actions and became depressed: “…the one who is sad hides himself, lest he should see that the waves, like God’s avengers, are swelling up against him. But his sleep is not out of a sense of security but out of grief...the ‘falling asleep’ of the prophet and the deepest sleep signify that man is groggy with the deep sleep of error, to whom it was not enough to have fled from the face of God, unless his mind, overwhelmed by a sort of madness, was ignorant of the anger of God.”

• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. surprisingly follows Jerome’s line of interpretation instead of that of his teacher, Theodore, when he suggests that “because Jonah was stung (kentoumenos) by his conscience, fell into despondency (athumiaᵢ), and could not bear the barbs of [his] thoughts, he obtained consolation (parapsuchên) from sleep” (PG 81:1725D).

• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 in a somewhat negative tone, attributes Jonah’s sleep to his depression and anxiety after having disobeyed God. Nonetheless, Jacob also presents Jonah’s sleep in the ship as an element that contributes to his status as a type of Christ since Jesus also slept in a boat while a storm raged and frightened his disciples (Lk 8:22–25; see Bedjan 1910, 4:385.7–387.10).

Jonah Went to Sleep before the Storm Began

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 1:5–6 “Indifference about praying and a preference for sleeping are hardly appropriate to a prophet’s alertness in the face of danger, when the occasion and the situation call one to action, and the proper response would rather be to appease the God of all. Hence we might presume that the sleeping was done before the storm, and that his going down to the actual hold of the ship was a mark of one accustomed to being on his own...The prophet therefore was dozing, not ignoring his duty, but, as I said, doing so before the onset of the storm.”

• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. “It was not that after this happened he went below and was sleeping: it would have been ridiculous if with such an alarm raised and everyone’s life at risk he had surrendered himself to sleep; rather, he did so as soon as he went on board.”

1:7–16 The Sailors Learn to Fear God The contrast between Jonah and the sailors is developed in these verses around the themes of fear and knowledge. In response to their perilous situation, the sailors seek knowledge through the casting of lots (Ancient Cultures Jon 1:7b).

• Jonah is not terrified of the storm, the sea, or even death.
• The sailors, who do not fear God in this way, are terrified of everything around them, for they do not know the outcome. They could be cursed for murder, they could be saved, or they could die. By the end of the pericope, the sailors learn the fear of God from Jonah and from the sea.

Because Jonah has said so little, his motivations remain unclear. Is his demand to be hurled into the sea suicide? Is he giving his life for the sailors? Is he certain that he will be saved from the sea?

Sailors

In a state of fear, the sailors seek knowledge—first from lots and then from Jonah. The information they receive further terrifies them. Instead of following his instructions, the sailors try to return to shore since they are afraid of incurring guilt for murder (Jon 1:14). Their fear of nature eventually gives way to fear of God, which they demonstrate through actions typical of sailors in the ancient world: making sacrifices and taking vows (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3–16).

Jonah

Jonah knows a great deal more than the sailors: who he is, who God is, the cause of the storm, and how to end it. The author continues to draw on biblical language: Jonah identifies himself as a Hebrew and a fearer of God, associating himself with such exemplars of obedience as Abraham (Gn 22:12), the Hebrew midwives (Ex 1:17 ), and the wisdom authors (Prv 1:7; 9:10; Sir 1:14; Vocabulary Jon 1:9b; Ancient Cultures Jon 1:9b). In response to the sailors’ questions, Jonah expresses what he knows, and what any reader of Scripture knows: that God (Yhwh) is the creator of the earth and sea. His surprising directive to the sailors—to hurl him into the sea—indicates his prophetic knowledge (like other prophets, Jonah just knows what to do: Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:1f; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10). Though he possesses knowledge about God, Jonah does not appear to understand what it means; his actions contradict his claim that he is a fearer of God.

The Sea

The inanimate sea, formerly operating in the background as a creature acted upon by God, now takes center stage in the narrative. In response to the sailors’ attempts to return to the shore, it rages more and more fiercely. Finally, the sea calms when the sailors hurl Jonah into the sea. Thus, the sea participates in teaching the sailors to fear God (Ancient Cultures Jon 2:1–9; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a).

1:10c For the men Hypothesis in Redaction History: Interpolations? 

Yes

A three-fold series of subordinate clauses introduced by kî concludes the verse: “For the men…that from…for he.” These are often thought to be later interpolations that at one time served as a marginal note and later came to be inserted into the text (cf. discussion in →Wolff 1986; →Simon 1999). Support for such a claim is as follows:

• Jon 1:8, another significant textual variant, is likely an interpolation;
• some chronological incongruity (the exclamation of the men’s concern precedes their knowledge of its cause);

• stylistic awkwardness in the shift from the direct speech of the sailors to the narrative explanation of the kî-clauses (“For the men…that from…for he had told them”): the sailors’ questions would seem to demand a response from Jonah in direct speech rather than the narrator’s intrusion.

No

• The abrupt shift from direct speech to narrative can be defended as an intentional rhetorical technique (see Literary Devices Jon 1:10c). Likewise early rabbinic commentary often incorporates multiple successive (and even nested) subordinate clauses for explanatory means.
• Although the narrative describes the fear of the men (Jon 1:10a) and their response “What is this you have done?” (Jon 1:10b) prior to expositing their knowledge, “For the men knew” (Jon 1:10c), similar flashbacks are found elsewhere in late biblical narrative (e.g., Est 3:3-5; Neh 8:8-9).
• The absence of textual variants for Jon 1:10 renders the claim of interpolation circumstantial.

Contrary to Jon 1:8, if Jon 1:10 is an interpolation it must have occurred at the earliest stage of the text’s transmission, for the text does not appear to have been deemed sufficiently awkward to merit emendation throughout its history of transmission, as is evident from the absence of variants in ancient manuscripts. Depending on how late one dates Jonah, the series may be considered original. Interpolation is therefore unlikely.

1:9b Hebrew Rare Word Ancient Cultures Jon 1:9b; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b.

1:9b,13a; 2:10 dry land vs. "earth, country": Scriptural Connotations

• ’ereṣ is the more common Hebrew term and has already occurred in the story (Jon 1:8).
• yabbāšâ (used again in Jon 1:13 and Jon 2:10 [M-2:11]) is etymologically related to the root ybš (“to be dry”); it occurs in contrast to the “sea.”

It also stresses Yhwh’s ability to separate the waters to reveal dry land in times of great need (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:9b,13a; 2:10).

1:11a,12b calm down from [raging] against Two Expressions Condensed into One

Composed Preposition

mē‘ālénû and mē‘ălékem are composed of three elements:

• min “from”;

• ‘al “upon” or “against”;

• -nû and -kem, the 1st and 2nd person plural pronomial suffixes.

It has several meanings:

• downwards from us (cf. Gn 24:64); 
• away from us (cf. Gn 38:14). 

Since min primarily expresses separation and distance, the composed proposition mē‘āl denotes relief from harassment, as in, “may the sea quiet down from [raging] against us” (cf. →Joüon and Muraoka 2008, §133.f).

Constructio praegnans

As a directional prepositional phrase, mē‘āl demands some sense of motion; however, šātaq (“to be quiet”) does not belong to this category. This apparent syntactic anomaly should most probably be understood as a kind of brachylogy in which šātaq marks the goal of motion. That is, the sense of the phrase is, “that the sea might become quiet [by moving] away from us/you.”

1:9 NARRATION Characterization of God The great storm which God hurls at the ship enacts Jonah’s declaration: “I fear the one who made the sea and the dry land.”

Merism

“The sea and the dry land” is a merism that signifies the whole of creation, as in Ps 95:5: “The sea is his, and he made it; and his hands formed the dry land.” This merism is likewise comparable to God’s common title as the creator or lord of “the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). He is neither a sea-god nor a storm-god but an everything god! Moreover, Jonah’s full declaration involves all three zones of the cosmos: the heavens, the sea, and the earth (cf. Ps 135:6).

God’s Control of Nature

Many formulations like this one abound. Although it is not the main point of the story, it is abundantly clear that God controls the natural world.

1:12b Pick me up and hurl me Characterization through a Contest of Wills The first clear inversion of the symbolism of descent, Jonah’s command for the sailors to pick him up (śā’ûnî), is followed immediately by his arresting command to hurl him into the sea (wᵉhăṭîlūnî). His goal appears to be that of calming the storm. The contradictory nature of his two commands, however, may manifest a contest of wills within Jonah. God has commanded him to rise (qûm, Jon 1:2), but, at the same time, Jonah himself wishes to flee through descent.

The pressing question is whether or not Jonah wants to die as a means of final escape. If he assumes that being tossed in the sea will result in his death, this will not be his only death wish (Jon 4:3,8). On one hand, his hope may be to avoid the guilt of having the sailors’ blood on his hands. Why should they die for his insolence? →Jerome Comm. Jon. suggests that Jonah does not want to add the murder of the crew to his crime of desertion. If this is the case, it is curious that Jonah does not throw himself into the sea but rather commands that the sailors pick him up and hurl him into the sea. It may be the case that a prohibitive stance toward suicide underlies the presentation of Jonah’s request. Further confounding matters, the sailors fear lest they incur the blood-guilt of an innocent man (Jon 1:14).

It is difficult to discern the primary focus of this portion of the narrative. Should Jonah’s actions be interpreted as compassionate or even penitential? Limited narratorial comment on Jonah’s interior disposition exacerbates matters and raises more questions than answers. Is Jonah certain that God is going to forgive or save him from the sea and its monsters? To what extent does Jonah know that God is slow to anger and abounding in love and mercy? If Jonah is well informed about the Lord’s loving nature, might he simply not want God to extend the same abounding love and mercy to non-Hebrews? It would seem that Jonah knows God and God’s will to forgive but does not want God to be God, at least not for the Ninevites. And he may be willing to pay the ultimate price for it—if perhaps others are willing to incur the guilt for it.

1:15b the sea ceased Personification The verb used here to describe the sea’s raging (z‘p) is only used elsewhere for human beings (2Chr 16:10; 26:19; 28:9; Prv 19:12) or God (Is 30:30).

1:9b do I fear : M | G: I worship (Insistence on the Religious Dimension)

• G translates the Hebrew verb yr’ with sebomai, a verb which can connote the experience of reverential fear, especially toward deities, as well as the act of worshipping gods (Literary Devices Jon 1:9b,14b). Thus, on the lexical level, G makes more explicit the sense of the Hebrew yr’, which can refer to any kind of fear.

• Moreover, the contrast between fear of God and fear in general is brought out in the next verse (Jon 1:10), where the more common verb for “fear,” i.e., phobeô, is used in conjunction with the noun phobos in relation to the visceral fear of the sailors (Literary Devices Jon 1:9b,14b; Literary Devices Jon 1:10a,16a).

1:14b Please Motif of Pleading for Life Similar language is used by:

• Hezekiah on his sickbed (2Kgs 20:3);

• Joseph’s brothers when they beg him to spare their lives (Gn 50:17).

1:12b Pick me up Overboard Here, Jonah demonstrates his knowledge of Halakha.

• →b. Sukkah 53b: Asphyxiation is the punishment for withholding knowledge, of which Jonah is guilty (cf. →b. Sanh. 89a).

Drowning, then, would be the most appropriate punishment for Jonah (→Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 100).

1:8f,14 Typological Reading: The Sailors Prefigure Pilate A few patristic writers expand their typological reading of Jonah to include the sailors, with the result that their interrogation of Jonah (Jon 1:8–9) and their petition to be absolved of innocent blood (Jon 1:14) are seen as prefigurations of Pilate's actions.

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 1:14 “They make God a witness that whatever they are about to do may not be reputed to them, and in a way they are saying: We do not wish to kill your prophet, but he himself has admitted to your anger, and the storm speaks, 'for you, O Lord, have done as you willed.' Your will is being carried out through our hands…Do not the words of the sailors seem to us to be the confession of Pilate, who washes his hands and says: ‘I am clean of the blood of this man’? The Gentiles do not want Christ to perish; they speak on behalf of his innocent blood.”
• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 develops his Christological reading of the Book of Jonah when he compares Jonah’s interrogation by the sailors (Jon 1:8–9) to Jesus’, by Pilate; neither the sailors nor Pilate are able to avoid the death of their respective interlocutors. Although Jonah is far from innocent, and therefore differs from Christ in that respect, for Jacob, Jonah is nonetheless a type of Christ (Bedjan 1910, 4:415.4–13).

1:8a On whose account Moral Interpretation: The Sailors and Papacy Neglect Their Own Depravity

The Sailors' Scapegoat Jonah

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "They would not indeed have thrown the blame on one man, if each had well considered what he deserved before God. When a calamity happens, it is the duty of every one to examine himself and his whole life before God: then every one, from the first to the last, must confess that he bears a just judgment. But when all demand together who is guilty before God, they thus exonerate themselves, as though they were innocent. And it is an evil that prevails at this day in the world, that every one is disposed to cast the blame on others and all would have themselves to be innocent before God; not that they can clear themselves of every fault, but they extenuate their sins, as though God could not justly pursue them with so much severity."

Confessional Polemic against the Papacy

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. continues, “This passage, then, shows what is even well known by common experience—that men, though they know themselves to be guilty before God, yet extenuate their sins and promise themselves pardon, as though they could make an agreement with God, that he should not treat them with strict justice, but deal with them indulgently. Hence, then, is the hope of impunity, because we make light offenses of the most grievous sins. Thus we find under the Papacy, that various modes are devised, by which they absolve themselves before God and wipe away their stains: the sprinkling of holy water cleanses almost all sins; except a man be either an adulterer, or a murderer, or a sorcerer, or ten times perjured, he hardly thinks himself to be guilty of any crime. Then the expiations which they use, avail, as they think, to obliterate all iniquities. Whence is this error? Even because they consider God to be like themselves, and think not their sins to be so great abominations before God."

1:12b Pick me up and hurl me Jonah's Strange Demand

Musing over the Necessity of That Demand

• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "It may be asked whether Jonah ought to have of his own accord offered himself to die; for it seemed to be an evidence of desperation. He might, indeed, have surrendered himself to their will; but here he did, as it were, stimulate them, ‘Throw me into the sea,’ he says; ‘for ye cannot otherwise pacify God than by punishing me.’ He seemed like a man in despair, when he would thus advance to death of his own accord. But Jonah no doubt knew that he was doomed to punishment by God. It is uncertain whether he then entertained a hope of deliverance, that is, whether he confidently relied at this time on the grace of God. But, however it may have been, we may yet conclude, that he gave himself up to death, because he knew and was fully persuaded that he was in a manner summoned by the evident voice of God."

Jonah's Internal Dialogue 

• →Luther Lect. Jon. "But you must visualize Jonah’s frame of mind and his dilemma. He does not see a spark of life left in him nor any hope of rescue; nothing but death, yes, death, death confronts him, and he must despair of life and surrender to death."

1:12c great storm Allegory of the Storm

• →Gloss. ord. "Allegorice: these winds, these waves refer to Christ and to the Church in danger, or to the apostles when they awoke, deserting him in the passion, they are cast about in the waves. Therefore Christ says, ‘Since the world sees that I sail with you to the contemplation of joy, just as you also will be where I am, therefore it roars and wants to devour me, so that it might kill you likewise, nor does it understand that just as it seizes bait on a hook, so also it will die by my death.'"
• →Gloss. ord.: Glossing “Pick me up and hurl me into the sea,” the Glossa, still speaking in the person of Jesus, continues, “The storm that rages against you on account of me will be calmed when I die. It is not yours to arrest death, but to accept a death that has freely been brought on by another, except where love is endangered."
• →Gloss. ord. "Before the passion of Christ, errors and diverse teachings were tossing about the little ship of the ecclesia and the whole human race like opposing waves, but after the passion there is the tranquility of faith, the peace of the world, all things secure. Thus after the headlong fall of Jonah, the sea desists from its fury."

1:16bc offered a sacrifice + made vows — The Sailors' Sacrifice: A Sign of Monolatry or Monotheism? Some early patristic commentators focus on the sailors’ reaction to the sea’s calming down, examining whether or not it should be taken as a genuine conversion to monotheism. Their opinions range from non-conversion (Cyril) to full conversion to Yhwh (Theodoret).

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. does not seem to think that the sailors were totally converted from polytheism: “…they offered sacrifice to the one who alone is God by nature and in truth, bypassing their own, though believing they benefited from those that were venerated out of deception and that laid claim to the glory due to God. They also made vows, despite being in the custom of doing this to the maritime demons. The pagans, you see, chose to attribute power over the sea to Poseidon; their religion consisted completely of fairy tales, quackery, and awful stupidity."
• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 1:14–16 "Though ignorant of the truth, they are not unaware of providence, and under a religious error they know that something ought to be worshiped.” Later, Jerome strengthens his stance on the conversion of the sailors, adding that “Jonah, a shipwrecked, dead fugitive at sea, saves the floundering boat. He saves the pagans who had been tossed about before by the error of the world into different beliefs." 
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. takes Jon 1:16 not to mean “that they sacrificed to the Lord on the spot, being unlikely to perform sacrifices on board a boat," but rather "that they completely gave up the idols and devoted themselves to the worship of God, promising in the future to join his service and offer due sacrifice to him."
• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 1:14–16 "...and awe (deos) was instilled into the souls of the men who saw this [calming of the sea] so that after their return journey to land (epanodon) they offered sacrifices to God, and they believed this one to be the only master (despotên) of all" (PG 81:1729A–B).

1:7–15 Jonah Cast into the Sea in Early Christian Art

Catacombs

Decorative Motif

Typological Overtone

See further →Jonah: Visual Arts

1:17 A Fish Swallows a Prophet In a way, the fish that swallows Jonah has also swallowed the story. After all, no one refers to the book as the story of “Jonah and the Ninevites,” or “Jonah and the worm-eaten plant.” Even those who may know nothing else about the book, know that Jonah is swallowed by a whale. Such familiarity can, however, obscure the surprise of a divinely-appointed fish coming out of nowhere to gulp up the prophet. In fact, neither the purpose nor the outcome of this unexpected development are clear to the reader at this point in the narrative. Is God saving Jonah from drowning to give him a second chance? Or, is God punishing Jonah for disobedience by having him suffer for three days inside a monstrous fish?  

God, the Director of the Narrative

When God appoints the fish to swallow Jonah, God reemerges as the primary mover of the story. Whereas God first sent Jonah, and then prevented his escape by hurling a wind and causing a storm, he now prevents, at least momentarily, Jonah’s death. God’s oversight of the unfolding of events within the story is expressed with the theologically-charged word “appoint,” which connotes God’s control over the world and every part of it. This emphasis on God’s command of the natural world will be revisited several more times in the narrative with the qîqāyôn-plant, the worm, and the scorching wind (Literary Devices Jon 1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a; Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a).

The Great Fish, God's Fantastic Instrument

The fish appears suddenly and serves as God’s instrument for correcting the prophet. With the entrance of the great fish, the verisimilitude of the story seems to evaporate and the reader is confronted with a question about the story’s purpose and genre. What had begun as a typical prophetic narrative seems to have transformed into a fantastic tall tale. In fact, this single verse has been a source of incredulity for many authors from late Antiquity through the Enlightenment (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:17a; Ancient Texts Jon 1:17–2:1; Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10; Philosophy Jon 1:17b).

Yet, if this great fish is meant to be a literary feature of the story, we may well ask: what is its purpose? what is the author attempting to express? As will become clear in the course of ch. 2, the fish serves as a liminal space in which the prophet hangs between life and death, offering an anguished prayer of thanksgiving. 

Jonah, Vessel of God's Message

Jonah has moved from being the primary actor within the story to a passive object. After the sailors hurl Jonah, the vessel of God’s message, into the sea with the other vessels, he is immediately swallowed by the great fish. Curiously we, as readers, are told that Jonah remained within the fish for three days and three nights, a detail which builds up suspense; though we know that Jonah is not yet dead, we remain in the dark about his precise fate. Of course, in the history of reception, this detail has sparked more theological and typological reflection than any other within the book (Christian Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10).

17b–1 innards Multivalence: Digestion and Reproduction

Literal Sense

The term mē‘îm occurs only in the plural. Since knowledge of physiology was limited in Antiquity, it served as a nonspecific anatomical reference, comparable to viscera in Latin or “guts” in English (cf. 2Sm 20:10; 2Chr 21:18–19). More specifically, the mē‘îm designate the organs involved in digestion, reproduction, and gestation.

• In Jb 20:14 it appears to refer to the digestive system.
• Elsewhere it refers to the loins (e.g., Is 16:11); hence the various idioms, such as the “issue of one’s mē‘îm,” which denotes one’s paternity (Gn 15:4; 2Sm 7:12; 2Chr 32:21).
• It also refers to female reproductive organs, especially the womb (e.g., Gn 25:23; Ru 1:11).

Figurative Use

Mē‘îm can denote:

• strong, visceral emotions: e.g., “boiling innards” in Jb 30:27.
• one’s inmost being, his will, and intellect: Ps 40:8 (M-40:9).

The primary sense of the term as it appears in Jon 1:17b–2:1 appears to be “stomach,” but the multivalence of the term is something reflected in both ancient translations and the exegesis of some Church Fathers (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:17b–2:1; Christian Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10).

1:17; 2:1,10 fish He-Fish or She-Fish? Shift in Gender Whereas in Jon 1:17a the Lord appoints a dāg, “fish” in masculine form, one reads in Jon 2:1 that Jonah prays from the innards of a dāgâ, “fish” in feminine form. In Jon 2:10, however, the creature is again called a dāg.

The text’s ambiguity inspired a number of Jewish explanations (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17; 2:1,10) and may have influenced certain translation choices in Jerome’s Vulgate (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1).

1:17b three days and three nights A Motif in a Mesopotamian Myth

• Inanna's Descent to the Nether World  167–182 “The sick ‘woman’ was turned into a corpse, / The corpse was hung from a stake. / After three days and three nights had passed, / Her messenger Ninshubur, / Her messenger of favorable words, / Her carrier of true words, / Fills the heaven with complaints for her / … / ‘O, Father Enlil, let not thy daughter be put to death in the nether world’” ( →ANET 55).

17f; 2:10 fish : M | G: a sea-monster The Greek kêtos does not closely correspond to M's dāg; in Greek the term ichthus ("fish") is the semantic counterpart of dāg. This translation decision is both an homage to Greek culture and a product of ancient exegesis that creates a link between Jon 1:17 (M-2:1) and other biblical texts.

Kêtos in Greek Literature

• See Ancient Texts Jon 1:17–2:1.

Kêtos in the Septuagint

The term kêtos “sea-monster” has cosmological associations in G.

• It occurs in the description of the fifth day of creation in Gn 1:21. The first sea-creatures are the “great tannînim" (= kêtê).

• In Jb 3:8, the same term translates Hebrew liwyātān, and in Jb 9:13; 26:12 , it translates rāhab (see also Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a).

• In Sir 43:25 the great sea-monsters are the proof of the Creator’s might.

• In the Song of the Three Youths the kêtê praise and bless the Lord (G-Dn 3:79).

17b–1 innards Transforming mē‘îm  The Hebrew term “innards” can denote both the stomach (and digestion) and the womb (and reproduction; Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1); hence, its contents can either be destroyed or confected. Figuratively, they are a site of transformation.

• Upon entering, the content is broken down and absorbed: this is usually food, but also includes the bitter scroll which Ezekiel consumes in Ez 3:3.
• “Exiting the innards” is an idiomatic phrase for birth or origin (cf. 2Chr 32:21; Is 48:19). Isaiah hears God’s call, as it were, from within his mother’s mē‘îm (Is 49:1). Jonah has a figurative “rebirth” when he accepts his vocation and is expelled from the great fish.

By metonymy mē‘îm refers to the seat of such emotions as love (Sg 5:4), compassion, and anguish (Jb 30:27; Jer 4:19; Lam 1:20). In the context of Jonah, this last connotation is significant: in parallel with the root rḥm, mē‘îm is associated with compassion and mercy (cf. Is 16:11; 63:15; Jer 31:20).

Jonah finds himself in the mē‘îm: when he departs, he will be, in a way, “the son of a fish.” Those mē‘îm, which could have destroyed him, let him live.

1:17a appointed Does God Speak to His Creatures? Some patristic writers examine what it means for God to command the great fish (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17a; 4:6a,7a,8a).

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. takes great care to emphasize that God does not command his angels and prophets in the same way as he does other creatures or elements of the created world: whereas when God commands his prophets, “he communicates to their minds what has to be done and instills in their hearts the knowledge of whatever he wants,” yet “it would be silly and close to insanity…to think seriously that the God of all deals with even monsters in this manner.”

• →Theodoret of Cyrus Interpr. Jon. 2:1–2 notes that when the text says that God commanded, this means that the whale swallowed Jonah “by divine assent” (theôᵢ neumati) in a general sense (PG 81:1729B).

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 2:1 has an interpretation reminiscent of some of the rabbinical commentaries mentioned above (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a): “…when it says he prepared, it means either from the beginning, when he created it, of which it is written in a Psalm, ‘This is the dragon which you formed to play therein’ (Ps 104:26), or certainly he made it come next to the ship to receive Jonah into its belly, who had been thrown headlong, and to offer him a little living space instead of death.”

1:17a great fish What Is That Fish?

Symbolic Use of the "Whale" as a Miser

• →Shakespeare Pericles  Act II, Scene 1: After he is shipwrecked, Pericles overhears a group of fishermen comparing a miser to a whale. He swallows all the little ones and would not be contented until he swallowed a whole church. Another replied that if he was in the bell tower when the church was swallowed, he would ring the bells until the whale had to spit him out (cf. →Hamlin  2018, 120–122).

Pseudo-Naturalistic Explanation of the Whale as a Fish

A century after Carl Linnaeus described the mammalian qualities of whales, Moby Dick’s Ishmael had a wealth of information at his disposal; he composed an entire treatise on cetological categories, appealing to the most important 18^th and 19^th c. naturalists. At the end of many arguments that the whale is not a fish, however, Ishmael has to disagree.

• →Melville Moby Dick ch. 32, Cetology: "Be it known that, waiving all argument, I take the good old-fashioned ground that the whale is a fish, and call upon holy Jonah to back me" (108–109).

Ishmael shares the reasoning used in a near contemporary court case, in which it was decided that whales are legally fish (Law Jon 1:17a).

2:1–9 The Fish as Womb, Tomb, Temple, or Prison? Yes, All of These As the progress of the narrative comes to a stop, readers are privileged to hear Jonah’s psalmic prayer from within the great fish. In the course of his prayer, we see that he has continued his descent; whereas he initially descended to Joppa and then descended into the recesses of the ship to flee from God, he now describes how he descended into the depths as far as the primordial features of the world that no mortal has seen. This prayer in the fish is the culmination of his experience, as he recollects sinking to the depths and then his rescue by God. Jonah says that he went to the roots of the mountains, with the bars closed upon him forever; it is at this point that God brings him up from the pit and rescues him (Jon 2:6). Does this prayer reflect the knowledge and fear of God that Jonah professed in the first chapter—that the God who controls the sea and the dry land can save him? The fish is an instrument of Jonah’s salvation, a supreme demonstration of mercy at the most critical moment. In many ways, the commentary tradition has argued that the fish gave Jonah a veritable tour of the deep (Literary Devices Jon 1:3b,5d; 2:6a).

The Fish

With a subtle change in grammatical gender, the great fish transforms from a he-fish into a she-fish (Vocabulary Jon 2:2c), a fact that reinforces its fantastical qualities. Though this mythopoeic fish has played a large role in two short verses (Jon 1:17–2:1), it immediately recedes into the background, becoming a liminal stage on which Jonah prays (Jon 2:2–9). Within the history of Jewish reception, the androgynous fish (Grammar Jon 1:17; 2:1,10; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17; 2:1,10) is eventually listed among the entities that were with God when he created the world (→Protoctist Entities: What Was with God at the Creation?; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17a). In the Christian tradition, on the other hand, some patristic authors think that Jonah’s time in the fish is, in fact, a period of prophetic gestation; his time in the fish prepares him to obey God’s commission (Comparison of Versions Jon 1:17–2:1; Comparison of Versions Jon 2:1; Comparison of Versions Jon 2:2b).

Jonah

At least in terms of his external behavior, Jonah demonstrates a change. Though he complies with neither directive to call out (qr’: Jon 1:2,6), here, in the belly of the great fish, in the depths of the sea, he finally does call out (qr’; Literary Devices Jon 1:2–3:8). While this difference in behavior may also signal a change within Jonah, it is important to observe that his prayer is self-interested. Further, the words of the prayer, especially Jon 2:5–7, reveal something the reader has not yet encountered in the story: Jonah describes how he feels.

The Prayer

Like many of the psalms, we are given the context for Jonah’s prayer: he prays from the belly of the she-fish. As noted above, the prayer gives the reader a glimpse of Jonah’s inner-emotional state, and for many within the history of interpretation, its repentant tone redeems him as a prophet. Further, this prayer serves as a model within the Christian tradition; like Jonah, we are to pray in the midst of distress for help and salvation from God. The prayer itself is comprised of a patchwork of psalmodic language (Textual Criticism Jon 2:9a; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:1–9), including references to cult, particularly the Temple and thanksgiving sacrifices. Thus it has found a home in liturgy (Liturgies Jon 2:1–9). With references to mythical elements, such as the roots of the mountains and Sheol, some have viewed the prayer as the description of a cosmological journey through the depths and to the beginnings of creation.

Although it is likely that the prayer is secondary to the story, we read Jonah as a unified text regardless of its historical development (Literary Genre Jon 2:1–9).

2:6c my life : M | Potential Plus in 4QXII^g: the life of my soul

• 4QXII^g (4Q82 f85) clearly reads "my soul" (npšy).

It is possible to reconstruct ḥyy (“my life”) in the lacunae between frs. 82, 84, and 85, all of which contain ink traces that are commensurate with such a reconstruction. The phrase npšy ḥyy can be translated as “the life of my soul” (→DJD XV, 310–311).

2:9a let me sacrifice : M | 4QXII^g: I will sacrifice The cohortative ’ăšallēmâ is found in M, while the pi‘el yiqtol ’ăšallēm occurs in 4QXII^g (4Q82 fr. 78ii+82-87:9; →DJD XV, 310).

Usage

This occurrence in 4QXII^g accords well with its usage in the Book of Psalms in M.

• The same form ’ăšallēm occurs five times (Ps 22:25 [M-22:26]; Ps 56:12 [M-56:13]; Ps 66:13; 116:14,18), always in contexts where vows are paid to the Lord God by the speaker. Furthermore, it is found once in Ps^b (4Q84 fr. 28i:15; →DJD XVI, 44), which corresponds to M-Ps 116:18.
• In contrast, there are two other instances of the cohortative ’ăšall^emâ in M (Ps 41:10 [M-41:11]; Prv 20:22): both occur in contexts where the speaker desires to repay evil.

Significance

• Though it is possible that the difference between M and 4QXII^g is simply a matter of a copyist’s error, it is also possible that the change was intended to bring this prayer into closer alignment with the Psalms.
• Further, the future form of the verb (“I will sacrifice”) can convey greater certitude compared to the cohortative (“let me sacrifice”); in this case, the speaker is not simply entreating God to enable him to pay vows, but rather affirming with conviction that he will fulfill his vows.

2:2c the belly of Sheol Semantic Field of "Belly" Beṭen means “belly.” Like English, beṭen has several literal and figurative senses:

• physical (Sg 7:2 [M-7:3]);
• physiological (digestion: Ez 3:3; procreation: Gn 25:23–24);
• psychological, especially as the seat of the emotions (cf. the synonymous “innards” in Vocabulary Jon 1:17b–2:1).

Sheol is often personified as having a hearty appetite.

• It opens wide its mouth (Is 5:14) to swallow (Prv 1:12),
• but it is not sated (Hb 2:5).

While the “beṭen of Sheol” is only found here, it is in keeping with this imagery, and so “belly” seems preferable to “womb” (see also Jewish Tradition Jon 2:2c).

2:3a river Possible Contextual Meanings Since nāhār most often means “river,” one wonders why it is mentioned in parallel with the “seas.”

• The word nāhār can denote “current”: see Is 44:27, where the Lord says to the deep (ṣûlâ) “I will dry up your currents (nahărōtayk).” See likewise Ps 24:2; 89:25; Hb 3:8, which are poetic texts that seem to associate nāhār with the sea (Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10). 
• It could also be a proper name: the figure of Yam-Nahar (the sea-river god) is found in Ugaritic literature, where the cognate term is clearly applied to the sea. A translation that alludes to this figure might also be possible: “And Nahar kept going around me” (Ancient Texts Jon 2:3a).

2:5a [the] deep Cosmological Term Jonah descends into tᵉhôm (G: abussos), the primordial depths from which Creation is brought forth (Gn 1:2; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a). The use of this term, which is associated with transcendent space-time realities, fosters later interpretations of Jonah’s cosmological tour under the earth, during which he passes through the foundations of the cosmos (Ancient Cultures Jon 2:1–9).

2:8 vain illusions A Metaphorical Expression

An Emphatic Expression of Nothingness

• The Hebrew phrase hablé šāw’ can be translated literally as “empty vapor,” and figuratively as “empty vanity” or “empty illusion” (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

Hebel: A Tricky Term in Hebrew

On its own, the term hebel means “vapor” or “breath,” though this basic meaning is not always, or even often, the one that is found in the Hebrew Bible. Thus, lexicons often gloss hebel as “vanity.”

• It can denote the transitory nature of human life: Jb 7:16; Ps 62:10; 144:4.

• It is also found in a few places in prophetic literature in contexts where idolatry is condemned: Is 57:13; Jer 10:3,15; 51:18, where it may underscore the idols' non-existence (hbl) and deceitfulness (šw’ ).

• It is perhaps best known as the Leitwort of Ecclesiastes—occurring some 30 times—where it is normally translated as “vanity.”

2:8 their fidelity Ḥesed: A Notoriously Difficult Term The word ḥesed—often translated as eleos in Greek and “loving-kindness” in English—is polysemous; it denotes, for example, God’s mercy and fidelity, as well as human kindness and loyalty. In some contexts, it accords with the theological term “grace.” Though much has been written on the word, it remains difficult to map the semantic range in a systematic and consistent manner. See  →Clines 1993-2011; →TLOT; →HALOT, s.v. ḥesed.

• In the context of Jon 2:8, it seems to be used in its religious sense: it denotes the fidelity that human beings are to show to God (piety) in return for God’s faithfulness and grace (mercy).
• The multivalence of the term had led to some divergent readings in the versions (Comparison of Versions Jon 2:8).

2:4b Nevertheless Contextual Meaning of the Adverb Generally, ’ak expresses affirmation. Hence it can be rendered:

• “surely,”
• “indeed.”

Depending on the context, however, it can express restriction, in which case it should be translated:

• “yet,”
• “nevertheless.”

2:8 vain illusions Superlative or Not The Hebrew phrase hablé šāw’ is a construct chain of two synonyms:

• It usually denotes a superlative (→Joüon and Muraoka 2008, §141.m). Literally meaning “nothingnesses of emptiness” or “the nought of nought,” the expression means to convey “the most nought” or “the ultimate nothingness”; cf. such similar expressions as “King of Kings” and “Holy of Holies.”
• Likewise hablé šāw conveys two similar but different aspects of “illusion,” namely, non-existence (hbl) and deceitfulness (šw’; Vocabulary Jon 2:8; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:8).

2:8 forsake Epistemic Modality of Yiqtol Though its form is yiqtol, ya‘ăzōbû here should not be understood as describing future, speculative, or unreal action; rather, it describes a general truth, one that is always the case. The act is certain and obvious; compare similar usage in sayings, precepts, and proverbs (e.g., Prv 10:1). Perhaps the most famous example of this kind of yiqtol is the translation of the divine name at G-Ex 3:14: egô eimi ho ôn “I am he who is.” 

2:1–9 Cosmological Background of Jonah's Prayer It is important to keep →General Israelite Cosmology in mind when reading the Book of Jonah, especially Jon 2, since its language is undoubtedly infused with these cosmological concepts.

• In his prayer, Jonah says that he has been taken down into the furthest depths of the sea, enveloped by its waters, and enclosed by the bars of the earth.
• Thus, he is not describing the physical seabed just beyond the port of Jaffa; rather he is speaking of a region beneath the earth (and sea) where one finds the primordial waters of chaos (cf. Gn 1:2).
• In addition, his prayer associates the location of these cosmological waters with Sheol, the realm of the dead. Such a cosmological worldview has much in common with that of Jb 38:16–18; in these poetic lines, the sea, the abyss, and the gates of death are placed in parallel with one another, thus creating a strong link between the underworld and the primordial waters.
• Hence we can surmise that Jonah was, in fact, given a privileged glimpse of the deep structure of the cosmos, the full knowledge of which belongs to God alone (cf. Jb 38:4–18; Jewish Tradition Jon 1:17–2:10). This tour, however, is portentous, for Jonah does not know if he will reemerge.

See likewise Vocabulary Jon 2:6ab; Vocabulary Jon 2:6c; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a; Jewish Tradition Jon 2:2c.

2:5b seaweed : M | G: fissures of mountains | S: bottom of the sea | V: sea The Hebrew sûp (usually “seaweed” or “reeds”) is here used to denote aquatic flora (Vocabulary Jon 2:5b). It is interesting that none of the versions translate sûp accurately, suggesting that the use of sûp to refer to seaweed was not well known.

The Furthest Abyss: A Misreading by G

• G probably read sûp as sôp (“end”) and thus translated it as eschatê, an adjective that modifies abussos: hence, “the fissures.”

• The translator then merged the end of v. 5b with the beginning of the next verse (Jon 2:6a: lᵉqiṣbé hārîm), resulting in “into the fissures of mountains my head went down.”

S: A Misreading That Is Closer than G

• S seems also to have misread M as sôp in v. 5b since it translates with the term ’št’ (“lowest part,” “bottom”). S did not misconstrue the lines by associating sôp with the preceding material in v. 5a and merging the rest of v. 5b with v. 6a.
• Yet, it is interesting that the translator did not choose the cognate term swp (“end,” “furthest part”). Instead, S opts for the specificity provided by ’št’; the translator wanted to make clear that the furthest part of the sea under consideration is its bottom (as opposed to a distant shore).
• S repeats the same term at the beginning of v. 6 in its rendering of “the roots (qiṣbé) of the mountains” as “lowest parts of the mountains.” This translation decision is typical of S, which often gravitates toward repetitive parallelism (→van Peursen 2007, 62–67).

V: A Rare Misreading

• V, which reads pelagus operuit caput meum, is difficult to relate to the Hebrew sûp. Jerome obviously did not read swp as sûp, but it is not clear why he rendered swp as pelagus (“the sea”). This is perhaps why he is silent on this line in his commentary (see →Jerome Comm. Jon.).

2:6b behind me : M | G: eternal barriers (Greek Allusion to Ancient Magic?)

• G: katochoi aiônioi.

In addition to denoting anything that “binds” or “inhibits,” the substantivized adjective katochos (from the verb katechô) may mean “tombstone” and even a binding or inhibiting spell (cf. the similarly used katadesmoi and Latin defixiones).

2:7a was growing weak  G vs. V and S: Physical vs. Emotional Affliction

• bᵉhit‘aṭṭēp: M | G: ekleipein (“was departing”)—the translation of G features a temporal construction consisting of the preposition en + the infinitive, rather than a middle or passive form.
• V: angustiaretur (“was distressed”) is a passive subjunctive imperfect.

• S: ’tṭrpt (“he was overwhelmed” or “he was exhausted”), the itpa‘al of ṭrp can have both a physical and emotional nuance. This is useful to note, particularly in the interpretation of S-Jon 4:8 (Comparison of Versions Jon 4:8b).

Whereas G develops the sense that the speaker was near physical death, both V and S denote an emotional, or spiritual, anguish. This may be because G interpreted M’s npš as “life,” while V and S understood it as “inner-spirit” or “soul.”

2:8 their fidelity : M | G: their mercy | V: his mercy | S: your mercy

The Differences

M’s ḥasdām (“their fidelity/loyalty”) is a multivalent term that proved to be somewhat difficult for the translators in this context (Vocabulary Jon 2:8).

• G: eleos autôn (“their mercy”) is unclear: in the context of the poem, “their mercy” would seem to refer to the mercy of God that the people who guard vanities and lies have forsaken. Yet, in the wider context of the Book of Jonah, it could refer to the sailors who forsook mercy by throwing Jonah overboard.
• V: misericordiam suam (“his mercy”), although there is no referent for the possessive pronoun “his,” the mercy of God is clearly in view.
• S: mrḥmnwt’ (“your mercy”), by using the 2^nd person singular masculine suffix, S turns the statement into direct address, and thus the phrase refers to God’s mercy.

A Possible Explanation of the Difficulty

• In M, it is clear that the ḥesed belongs to those who revere vain illusions (subjective genitive); by worshipping idols, they have abandoned their fidelity to God and his covenant.
• Yet, it appears that the translators did not understand ḥesed as a term that can refer to both God’s faithful, gracious actions towards humans (“mercy”) and the fidelity that humans ought to show to God in return (“piety”). Thus, the phrase, “their ḥesed,” referring to the idolators, did not make sense to them (cf. Ancient Texts Hos 1:6b; Comparison of Versions Hos 2:19b).
• In the case of G, it is likely that eleos (“compassion”) had become something of a standard translation for ḥesed.

2:9b Salvation : M | S: recompense  S: pwr‘n’ (“recompense”) has both positive and negative connotations. Much closer to the Hebrew yᵉšû‘ātâ would be pwrqn’ (“salvation”).

• Because a scribal error (the letter ‘ayin mistakenly written in place of the qop) does not seem to be very probable, it is likely a conscious translation decision.

2:1–9

Thanksgiving Prayers

Thanksgiving psalms seem to have been inserted in other narratives of the Old Testament, usually after overcoming a providential trial or ordeal.

• The Prayer of Hannah (1Sm 2:1–10).
• David’s Psalm of praise (2Sm 22).
• Hezekiah’s prayer (Is 38:9–20).
• Azariah’s thanksgiving psalm (G-Dn 3).
• The prayers of Mordecai and Esther (G-Est 4:17–19).

Psalmodic Language in Jonah's Prayer

Jonah’s prayer employs many themes, words, and phrases from the psalms.

• Jon 2:2 // Ps 120:1 “In my distress I cry to Yhwh, that he may answer me.”

• Jon 2:3 // Ps 42:7 “Deep calls to deep at the thunder of thy cataracts; all thy waves and thy billows have gone over me”; Ps 18:4–5 “The cords of death encompassed me, the torrents of perdition assailed me; the cords of Sheol entangled me, the snares of death confronted me.”

• Jon 2:4 // Ps 31:22 “I had said in my alarm, ‘I am driven far from thy sight.’ But thou didst hear my supplications, when I cried to thee for help.”

• Jon 2:5 // Ps 69:1–2 “Save me, O God! For the waters have come up to my neck. I sink in deep mire, where there is no foothold; I have come into deep waters, and the flood sweeps over me.”

• Jon 2:6 // Ps 30:3 “O Lord, thou hast brought up my soul from Sheol, restored me to life from among those gone down to the Pit.”

• Jon 2:7 // Ps 18:6-7 “In my distress I called upon the Lord; to my God I cried for help. From his Temple he heard my voice, and my cry to him reached his ears.”

• Jon 2:8 // Ps 31:6 “Thou hatest those who pay regard to vain idols; but I trust in the Lord.”

• Jon 2:9 // Ps 3:8 “Deliverance belongs to Yhwh; thy blessing be upon thy people!”; Ps 116:17–18 “I will offer to thee the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call on the name of Yhwh. I will pay my vows to Yhwh in the presence of all his people.”

2:3a,5a depths + [the] deep — Waters of Chaos and of Creation Jonah’s immersion into the depths (mᵉṣûlâ) in v. 3 and the deep (tᵉhôm; G: abussos) in v. 5 recalls several instances throughout the Bible where water (mayim) is a cosmological force of chaos and creation (→van der Toorn, Becking, and van der Horst 1995, 737). For biblical authors, God maintains the balance between water’s chaotic and creative aspects.

Chaos

• Water is associated with the sea-god Yam, the river-god Nahar, and the primordial dragon of chaos—identified variously as Tiamat, Leviathan, and Rehab—who lives in the sea (Jb 3:8; 41:1; Ps 104:26; Is 51:9–10). This divine struggle to maintain power over the forces of water is known broadly as the Chaoskampf (chaos-struggle) motif. This motif runs throughout ancient Near Eastern texts, including the Bible (cf. →Miller 2018).

• The creation account in Gn 1 indirectly concerns this motif, while passages like Hb 3:8 and Ps 104:1–14 directly refer to Yhwh’s battle with the sea (Yam) and river (Nahar). Biblical authors frequently cite the Exodus as such a battle (Ps 77:17–21; 106:9; 107:23–24; Is 44:27; 63:11–12; Hb 3:10).

• In the NT, the Chaoskampf motif is recapitulated in the story of Jesus walking on the water: as God, he victoriously tramples the head of the primordial sea-dragon (Mt 14:22–33). The revelation of the New Heaven and New Earth, when John reports that “the sea is no more” (Rv 21:1), is the culmination of this motif. This only spells the end of the chaotic aspect of water, for the river of life continues to flow forth from the throne of God (Rv 22:1–2).

• The deep waters are sometimes associated with Sheol (Jb 7:9; Ps 24:7–10; 88:6), as well as near-death experiences. In Jonah—as in Dt 32:39; 1Sm 2:6; 2Kgs 5:7—Yhwh is the only one who has the power to take and give life. Likewise, only he has power over the waters. Thus both droughts (1Kgs 17:1; Jer 14:1–6; Hg 1:10–11) and floods (Gn 5–9) are means of divine punishment.

Creation

• Water is not only destructive, however; it is life-giving too. Oftentimes these two aspects are juxtaposed. The waters that cover the face of the earth in Gn 1 are the chaotic cosmic depths (tᵉhôm) that Yhwh restrains and with which he creates. Yhwh separates the waters: rain nourishes plants and animals, while the sea below teems with life.
• Likewise, Eden, God’s garden, is situated at the confluence of four great rivers. Throughout the OT, the water is repeatedly employed as a metaphor of God’s provision, blessing, and salvation (Ex 17:4–5; Is 49:10; 55:10; Jer 17:13; Zec 14:8–9). In the NT, Jesus is the incarnation of living water (Jn 4:14; 7:37–38).
• Immersion into water builds on the Jewish practice of ritual bathing and symbolizes one’s descent (confession and death) and reemergence (salvation, Mt 28:19–20; Mk 16:15–16; Jn 3:3–7).

A Tenuous Boundary

• No clear demarcation of water’s simultaneously destructive and creative powers can be made. Very often, one sees both attributes at play in a single passage. This is seen in the Exodus in which Israel is saved, while Egypt’s army is wiped out by the sea. Ultimately, Yhwh is the one who wields power over all water, able to put it to use for whatever means he desires. Jonah’s prayer is both a recognition of this and a proclamation of thanksgiving that mirrors the language of the Psalmist who is rescued by Yhwh from “the depths of the earth” (tᵉhōmôt hā’āreṣ, Ps 71:20).

God's Presence Is Unbounded

• While Jonah is himself bounded by bars, seaweed, and the great fish itself, Jonah's prayer invokes the imagery of Ps 139; there the psalmist considers that one cannot escape God's presence, even if one could descend to the deepest places.

2:8 vain illusions Prophetic Language

• The Hebrew expression hablé šāw’ (Vocabulary Jon 2:8) appears only twice in M: here and in Ps 31:6. The latter is a thanksgiving psalm in which the speaker criticizes those who adhere to or worship the hablé šāw’, noting that the Lord hates them.
• In both cases, it is a direct object of a plural participle based on the verb šmr (qal in Ps 31:6; pi‘el in Jon 2:8 [M-2:9]). In Ps 31:6 these worshippers are castigated by the psalmist (M) or by God (G, S); they likewise serve as a foil to the psalmist who trusts (bṭḥ) in Yhwh (Literary Devices Jon 2:8).

2:2ff,7 Use in Lectionary →RML: Monday, Week 27 in Year I – Responsorial Canticle.

2:2b answered me God Is Present in the Sea-Monster's Belly

• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. 2:3 "'I,’ says Jonah, ‘who previously thought that God appears to prophets only in Jerusalem, found him present even in the sea-monster’s belly. And having prayed to him, I was delivered by his love of humanity.'" 

2:1–9 Christian Application of Jonah's Prayer In an album whose title obviously turns Jonah into a type of the human condition, American blues singer and guitarist Kelly Joe Phelps mixes country, blues, and gospel, offering an emotional song that re-interprets the themes of Jonah’s prayer within the context of a sinful yet repentant Christian (cf. allegories of Jonah’s flight in Christian Tradition Jon 1:3a). 

• Kelly Joe Phelps, Brother Sinner & the Whale (2012), Track 4: “Pilgrim’s Reach→”: “I’m afraid I’ve gone the wrong way again, / Walking away from Calvary and right back into sin, / Them ol’ demons, no, they don’t like me at all, / They love to beat my heart to hell, everytime I fall. / Why do I choose to suffer when I can live with God? / Lone dark valley, all my peace has gone, / Pray to Heaven, have mercy on me. / Hold my knees on the ground, Lord, help my faith, / My disbelief is killing me, I surely need Your grace, / I’ll open up the word and let You lead me on Your way, / Pray my eyes and ears are open, and I will hear You say. / ‘You are my sons and daughters, / I gave my own to buy your crown, / All of Heaven is buried in your heart, / Turn to Jesus and come to Me.’”

2:10 vomited Jonah RITUAL Jonah in Liturgical Furnishings While Jonah's imagery has frequently been used to adorn the walls, ceilings, and floors of churches and synagogues, at various times it was fashionable to use its imagery on ambos and pulpits. See, for example, excellent examples in 11–12^th c. Italy and in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown in the 18^th c.

This ambo employs both Cosmatesque ornament—typical of medieval Italy—and mosaics depicting peacocks, Jonah, and the sea-monster (a typological reference to Christ’s death and resurrection). One mosaic depicts Jonah being swallowed by the sea-monster, and the other shows him emerging from its belly three days later. The representation of the character is steep, almost in silhouette, because the Cosmatesque style is essentially abstract. Indeed this geometric art requires advanced mathematical knowledge and fascinates as much as some contemporary artwork.

Such a direct connection of the story of Jonah with preaching might both admonish reluctant preachers and remind the congregation—who play the role of the Ninevites—that they are in need of repentance and forgiveness.

2:10 vomited Jonah Expelled from the Fish

Early Christian Art

• Contrary to the biblical text, Jonah is not vomited onto the shore but rather disgorged into a sea swarming with creatures (three fish, a crab, a snail, and a salamander). The scene of Jonah begging to a fisherman and his boy may be reminiscent of those standing “over the waters” in Ezekiel’s vision of the future Temple, Ez 47:10  “Fishermen will stand beside the sea; from Engedi to Eneglaim it will be a place for the spreading of nets; its fish will be of very many kinds, like the fish of the Great Sea. See also →Jonah: Visual Arts.

2:10 on the dry land Heading Back to Israeli Shore with Jonah The Romanian-Israeli artist Jean David was active in Israel from the 1940s onward. Some of his most well-known work consists of travel posters and advertisements done for El Al airlines. In this piece, David does not draw upon traditional and expected imagery when depicting Jonah in the whale. Jonah is not in distress; instead, his time in the whale is an image of comfortable travel back to Israel!

Eugene Abeshaus moved to Israel from Russia in the 1970s and joined the artist community in Ein Hod, which David had helped to found more than three decades prior. In keeping with the sensibility of David’s piece above, Abeshaus likens an immigrant’s arrival at the port of Haifa to Jonah’s expulsion from the whale.

1:3a And Jonah got up to flee Syntax The phrase wāyyāqām…librō^aḥ echoes the divine order from Jon 1:2 (Grammar Jon 1:2). See also Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2; 3:2b.

Waw-consecutive

The wayyiqtol verb that opens the sentence is a regular narrative form suggesting a smooth continuation of the story. Jonah does “get up” but—to the reader’s surprise—to do the reverse of the second command: “And Jonah got up to flee”! This syntax and Jonah’s half-way obedience, i.e., disobedience, reinforce the staggering effect of Jonah’s unexpected flight.

Auxiliary Use of the Verb qwm

Like the two asyndetic imperatives in Jon 1:2, the phrase can be interpreted as verbal hendiadys, in which the first verb is interpreted as an auxiliary that conveys an ingressive force: “Jonah set out to flee” (see →Dobbs-Allsopp 1995, 31–37). 

Adversative Verb Form?

As mentioned above, the wayyiqtol conveys subsequent action. Most of the time, it is simply translated as "and then he…" or "it came to pass that…" Since, however, Jonah gets up to flee from God's mission, a number of translators choose to begin Jon 1:3 with an adversative conjunction such as “but” or “instead,” thereby moving the prophet’s surprising disobedience to the beginning of the clause. E.g.,

• "But Jonah rose up to flee" (JPS; KJV).

Some translators choose to insert an adversative halfway through the clause instead:

• "Rise up he did, but his thought was, he would escape to Tharsis" (Knox);
• "Jonas donc se mit en chemin, mais il résolut d'aller à Tharsis" (de Sacy).

1:3b a ship going to Tarshish Going or Coming? (Ambiguous Construction) The usual sense of the verb bô’ is movement toward (coming to) rather than going away. Translated literally, this would mean that Jonah looked in Joppa for a ship “coming to Tarshish.” The author could have conveyed that Jonah found a ship that was "going to Tarshish" with either the locative -he or a proposition using the verb hālak.

Several options are possible for translation: 

• "returning to Tarshish";
• "had just come from Tarshish";
• "about to leave";
• "going to."

1:1–4:11 Significance of the Names for God? Throughout Jonah readers find several names for God: YHWH (22x); ’Ēl/’Ĕlôhîm (13x); and YHWH ’Ĕlôhîm (4x).

• →Magonet (1983) suggests that the generic name is used in the context of punishment, whereas the Tetragrammaton is used in the context of mercy and forgiveness.
• →Sasson (1990, 17–18) charts their usage and concludes that the only sensible solution is to admit to no discernable pattern.

1:2,6c Get up NARRATION Repetition, Meaning The captain’s command to Jonah echoes the prophet’s call from God (Jon 1:2) verbatim. Jonah’s prior refusal of the divine command by “rising and fleeing,” rather than “rising and going,” now results in repetition of the same command to rise expressed in the mouth of a human character.

Echo of God’s Words in the Captain’s?

Such repetition may have startled Jonah, as though God was speaking through the captain, reminding Jonah of his earlier call.

Ellipsis

Yet, this time Jonah’s response to the captain’s command is never narrated. He simply appears in the company of the sailors. If Jonah rises at the command of the captain, it is a gap in the text for readers to fill. This increases the contrast between the captain’s (and sailors’) prayerful response to the storm and Jonah’s total rejection of his personalized divine mandates.

1:3b found a ship PROSODY Assonance (Wordplay)

• The name of the prophet and the word for ship bear a playful similarity, yônâ and ’ŏniyyâ.

Evidence of this type of wordplay can be found elsewhere (Ancient Cultures Jon 1:3b).

1:3a Tarshish An Enigmatic Location The location of Tarshish (Taršîš) is unknown, although there are a few clues as to its whereabouts. The most obvious of these is that Jonah aims to travel there by ship: hence it must lie somewhere along the Mediterranean coast.

Throughout the ancient sources, including the Bible, inconsistent spelling and usage further complicate an inquiry into Tarshish’s exact location. Indeed, the presumed location of the city depends on which biblical passages one follows.

• Ez 27:12 suggests that the city traded in silver, iron, tin, and lead, which leads some to suggest it could be in southern Spain. This identification is further strengthened by →Herodotus Hist. 1.163 and →Strabo Geogr. 3.2.11, which both speak of an Iberian city named Tartêssos.
• If one follows 1Kgs 10:22 and 1Kgs 22:48, then Tarshish would be situated in the direction of the lands of Ophir or Ezion-Geber, south of the land of Israel. On the other hand, the parallel mention of the city with Cyprus in Is 23:1 indicates that the city lies to the west of Israel.
• G-Is 23 identifies Jonah’s destination as Carthage, although this could also be New Carthage (present-day Cartagena, Spain).
• →Josephus A.J. 9.208 identifies the city as Thrassos in Cilicia.

Regardless of its actual location, it serves as a foil to Nineveh within the narrative.

1:3b Yapho Brief History of an Ancient Port Joppa (Hebrew Yāpô, Greek Ioppê and Iopê), also Iapu, Yafo, or Yafa, is an ancient major port city located 35 miles NW of Jerusalem and just south of the modern city of Tel Aviv.

The Site's History according to Ancient Historians

• During the Hellenistic period, Joppa was said to have been founded by Cepheus, the father of Andromeda (→Stephanus Byzantinus Ethn., s.v. Iopê). Throughout Antiquity, many historians noted that Andromeda was chained up on the bank of large rocks at the foot of the promontory and given over to the local sea-monster (→Strabo Geogr. 16.2.28; →Ps.-Scylax Peripl. 104; →Pliny Nat. 5.69; →Pomponius Mela Chor. 1.64; →Josephus B.J. 3.420; →Pausanias Descr. 4.35.9; →Jerome Comm. Jon. 1:3). Some of them mention that the marks left by the chains on the rock were still visible during their lifetime.
• →Pliny Nat. 9.11 records that, in 58 B.C., the aedile Marcus Scaurus brought the skeleton of the sea-monster, which was more than 40 feet long, from Joppa to Rome.    
• Joppa saw several battles during the war of the Diadochi. Antigonus stormed the city in 315 B.C. (→Diodorus of Sicily Bib. hist. 19.59.2), and Ptolemy Lagos destroyed it in 312 B.C. (ibid., 19.93.7).
• Joppa was taken by Pompey and joined to the province of Syria (→Josephus A.J. 14.76; →Josephus B.J. 1.156). Caesar restored it to the Jews under Hyrcanus (→Josephus A.J. 14.205). It was among the cities given by Antony to Cleopatra (→Josephus A.J. 15.95). Augustus added it to the kingdom of Herod (→Josephus A.J. 15.217; →Josephus B.J. 1.396); after the king's death, Joppa was passed on to his son Archelaus (→Josephus A.J. 17.320; →Josephus B.J. 2.97). At his deposition it was reattached to the Roman province of Syria.

See also Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:3b and Ancient Texts Jon 1:3b.

Archaeological Sources

The Site

• According to the site's excavator between 1956 and 1974, Jacob Kaplan, Joppa was first settled during the Middle Bronze Age; the site was fortified between 1800 and 1700 B.C., as attested by the discovery of an earthen rampart topped with a mudbrick wall and the localization of a city gate (→Burke 2011, 66–67).
• Royal scarabs bearing the name of the pharaoh Amenhotep III (14^th c. B.C.) were found during the excavations.

• A monumental gateway inscribed with the name of Pharaoh Ramesses II implies that an Egyptian garrison was stationed in Joppa in the 13^th c. B.C. This gate was destroyed by an intense conflagration and rebuilt afterwards.

• Excavations unearthed a long hall from the late 13^th c.–early 12^th c. B.C. with an adjacent citadel; it boasts wooden columns and a plastered floor. Moreover, archaeologists discovered a lion's skull within.

• A considerable amount of Philistine ceramics dated to the 12^th c.–11^th c. B.C. was recovered on the site; two graves where cattle were buried were found, suggesting cultic use.

• Domestic remains from the Late Iron Age were discovered, including a winery and pottery. An earthen rampart and mudbrick glacis were also located (→Burke 2011, 73).

• Several walls were found from the Persian period, suggesting that the city was rebuilt according to a Hippodamian plan (see →Burke, Peilstöcker, and Pierce 2014). A large storage unit was identified, with walls made of spaced ashlar piers and filled with fieldstones; the remnants of a forge were also found. 
• During the Hellenistic period, the walls were rebuilt following the previous layout; a building made of ashlar from the same time period was also excavated.
• A house was identified from the early Roman period; inside, typical Judean artefacts were recovered. A stamped roof tile of the Tenth Legion Fretensis was also found.

The City

• The city was destroyed sometime around the end of the 13^th c. B.C.,  perhaps from a conflict with the newly arriving Sea Peoples.  

• Later, it was a source of conflict between the Ptolemies and Seleucids. After the Maccabean revolt, it enjoyed significant autonomy until the end of the Jewish War of 66–70 A.D.

It appears much later in a famous episode of early Christianity (Acts 9:36; cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:3b).

The Harbor

• From the early 2^nd millennium B.C., its navigable harbor and natural breakwater made it a useful and frequently contested port.

19^th c. AD Jaffa, View From the Sea.

The École biblique de Jérusalem holds several photos of Jaffa from the late 19^th c. taken by the Bonfils family. The port of Jaffa (depicted in image n° 15007-Bonfils 0237), in use ever since the time of the pharoahs, was the principal port of entry for pilgrims to the Holy Land in the 19^th c. In shallow water, cluttered with reefs, the harbor could not allow large vessels to dock. Boats remained anchored offshore, and a system of large rowing boats was in service for passengers and luggage transportation.

• Center of the image, front: one of the big boats is crossing the pass between the reefs. The small town is built on the flanks of a former fortified position of which few military traces remain.
• In the foreground, on the wharf, a large new building at the time of the photograph: the Ottoman Customs House (this building is not yet built in a second snapshot of the Bonfils collection, which follows immediately in the École's digitized series). Much of the waterfront buildings still exists today, some restored, such as the building in the center, above the customs, with arched windows surrounded by white and a large open bay on its right.

19^th c. AD Jaffa, Perspective from the Sea, South-West to North East

1:3b Yapho In Ancient Written Sources

• The name 'Iapu' appears in the list of cities conquered by the pharaoh Thutmose III (15^th c. B.C.) inscribed in the temple of Karnak (→Ahituv 1984, 121).
• The story of the "Conquest of Joppa" by Djehuty, a commander of Thutmose III’s army who outwitted the rebellious ruler of the city, became a popular folktale in Egypt, as attested by the Papyrus Harris 500 (see →Goedicke 1968).
• Iapu is mentioned several times in the Amarna Letters (14^th c. B.C.), where it appears as an Egyptian stronghold (→EA 138, 248a, 294, 296, 365). Biridiya, king of Meggido under Egyptian dominion, reported to the pharaoh that he collected taxes from Iapu (→EA 248a).
• The transaction of wheat between the governor of Ugarit and the Egyptian governor of Canaan recorded in the Aphek letter took place in Joppa (→Owen 1981).
• Joppa is featured on the Amara-West list of Ramesses II (→Kitchen 1996, 2:no. 55), among other Egyptian settlements of the Mediterranean coast (13^th c. B.C.). The name also appears in a satirical letter dated to the same reign, the Papyrus Anastasi I, wherein the scribe Amenope visits Joppa to get his chariot repaired (→Gardiner 1911, 27*–28*).
• In the →Annals of Sennacherib (ii 69–72), the Assyrian king records that he took Joppa from Sidqa, the king of Ashkelon, ca. 701 B.C. (→Grayson and Novotny 2012, 1:175 [Sennacherib 22]).

• The inscription on the 5^th c. B.C. sarcophagus of Eshmunazar, “King of the two Sidons,” states that he was granted “Dor and Joppa” by the “king of kings,” that is, the Achaemenid king of Persia (→Oppert 1877, 114).

• The kings Ptolemy I, Ptolemy II, and Ptolemy III minted coins in Joppa, thus attesting Lagid dominion over the area during the 3^rd c. B.C. (→Ecker 2010, 151–176).
• In the mid-3^rd c. B.C., Joppa appears as a trade center in the Zenon papyri (→PCZ 1.59011 recto; 1.59093 and →P. Lond. 7.2086).
• A marble slab bearing a dedicatory inscription related to Ptolemy IV was recovered on the site; it must have belonged to a temple linked with the Ptolemaic ruler-cult.
• In →Ep. Arist. 115, Joppa is mentioned as a harbor.
• According to →Strabo Geogr. 16.2.28, the population of Joppa was mixed in the beginning of the 1^st c. A.D.
• →Pliny Nat. 5.14 referred to Joppa as a "Phoenician city."
• Joppa was destroyed twice during the first Jewish revolt. Cestius Gallus captured it, killed 8,400 of its inhabitants, and burned it (→Josephus B.J. 2.507–509). Afterwards, Jews who fled the Roman armies gathered in the desolate Joppa and turned into pirates to subsist. Vespasian set out to attack the city, but most of the inhabitants, who sought refuge on their boats, were killed when "the black north wind" smashed their boats against each other. Vespasian then destroyed the city once again and set up a camp there, leaving soldiers to placate the area (→Josephus B.J. 3.414–431).
• The coins minted at Joppa during the 3^rd c. A.D. show that it was renamed Joppa Flavia at the end of the 1^st c. A.D. (→Ecker 2010).
• The number of Jewish epitaphs from the 2^nd c. and 3^rd c. A.D. found in Joppa (→CIJ 2.882–970) indicates that the city still had an important Jewish population at the time.
• The rabbinic sources mention several sages from Joppa, among whom were Rabbi Adda ( →b. Meg. 16b), Rabbi Nahman (→Lev. Rab. 6.5), and Rabbi Yudan (→Lev. Rab. 20.10).
• In his Onomasticon, Eusebius does not have an entry for Joppê, but he briefly mentions it, stating that it was a Roman polis with a corresponding chôra in the 4^th c. A.D. (→Eusebius of Caesarea Onom., s.v. Sarôn 48v). In his translation, Jerome calls Joppa an oppidum (ibid., 163).
• The city developed as a place of pilgrimage, in relation to Peter’s miracle; it was thus visited by St. Paula (→Jerome Ep. 108.8; →Theodosius Situ 139; →Piacenza Pilg. v. 190), even though, according to →Epiphanius of Salamis Mens. pond. 75, the city lay in ruins by the late 4^th c. A.D.

1:2 their evil : M | G: the outcry of its wickedness (Emphasis) G renders M's rā‘ātām ("their evil") with hê kraugê tês kakias autês ("the outcry of its wickedness"). The following are some possible reasons for this translation:

• There was a different Vorlage, though there is no evidence to suggest this in any of the ancient Hebrew manuscripts (e.g., 4QXII^a, 4QXII^g, Mur88) or in the versions V and S.
• The motif of the cry of a city ascending to God is found elsewhere in G (e.g., G-Gn 18:20–21; 19:13; 1Sm 5:12; Is 5:7; Jer 14:2; 31:34). In the case of G-Gn 18:20–21 and G-Gn 19:13, it is the cry of evil cities (Sodom and Gomorrah) that rises to God, who then arranges for their destruction. 

1:1f TYPOLOGY Elijah and Elisha as Types of Jonah  (cf. Jon 1:17; 2:10; 3:1-2; 4:3,6-8).

If Jonah is placed in the 8^th c. B.C. (as noted in 2Kgs 14:25–28), he follows closely behind the other great Northern prophets Elijah and Elisha. There are many instances in which they are referenced in the account of Jonah.

Plot: Commissions

• The opening of Jonah recalls several commissions throughout biblical literature, particularly that of Elijah, who is told, in 1Kgs 17:9–10, to “Get up, go (qûm lēk) to Zarephath…So he got up and went to Zarephath.” By refusing God’s command, Jonah compares rather unfavorably.

Agents: Natural World

• The accounts of Elijah and Elisha frequently involve animals and other aspects of the natural world which are not typical of later prophets, but well at home in Jonah. For example, readers find ravens bringing food (1Kgs 17:1–8), a lion killing a man (1Kgs 20:35–36), a plant bringing shade (1Kgs 19:4), bears attacking youths (2Kgs 2:23-25), the appearance of fire and rain (1Kgs 18:21–39), and the parting of the Jordan river (2Kgs 2:8). 

Motif: Wish for Death

• Finally, both Jonah and Elijah wish for death when they feel as though the situation has become too dire for them to continue. Elijah believes he is the only follower of God left. When persecuted by Jezebel, he begs God for death (1Kgs 19:4). Jonah, however, begs for death when the city repents and God relents from destroying it (Jon 4:3) and again when he loses the shade of the plant (Jon 4:7–8; Literary Devices Jon 4:3,8f; Biblical Intertextuality Jon 4:3,8f).

1:1 Yona son of Amittai Inspirational Incipit of a Prophetic Book

Opening Lines in the Minor Prophets

The opening of the book provides us with the name and patronym of the prophet. While none of the Minor Prophets are left nameless, the introductions vary. With the exception of Obadiah and Habakkuk, the introductions give the name of the prophet’s father, the name of his home, and a chronological marker.

• Patronym: Hosea, Joel, Jonah, Zephaniah, Zechariah.
• Toponym: Amos, Micah, Nahum.
• Chronological reference: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah.
• Prophetic status: Jonah is not here called a prophet, although this should not be too disconcerting since Joel, Obadiah, Micah, and Zephaniah are also not called prophets. Yet 2Kgs 14:25 does explicitly refer to Jonah as a prophet, as do numerous peritestamental texts (Peritestamental Literature Jon 1:1).

A Name Loaded with Allusions

Jonah, or "Dove"

•  Hos 7:11 refers to Ephraim as a silly dove who calls upon Egypt and goes to Assyria.
• Doves symbolize affection (Sg 2:14) and good tidings (Gn 8:11).
• The psalmist (Ps 55:6–8) wishes that he had the wings of a dove so that he could fly to safety.
• Doves are passive (Na 2:7).
• Doves are used in certain sacrifices (Lv 5:7).

Amittai, Son of the Widow of Zarephath?

• According to some interpreters, the relation between ’ĕmet and “Amittai” (Vocabulary Jon 1:1) bespeaks a connection with the widow of Zarephath, for she proclaims the word of the Lord in Elijah’s mouth to be truth (’ĕmet), when he raises her son to life (1Kgs 17:17–24). Thus, some late traditions such as →Vit. proph. 10 seem to identify Jonah as the widow’s son.
• According to 2Kgs 14:25, Jonah foretold Jeroboam II's successful enlargement of Israel (Ancient Texts Jon 1:1). There we also learn that Jonah was from Gath-Hepher, which was the eastern boundary of the tribe of Zebulun as noted in Jo 19:13 (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:1).

1:1 Yona “Simon, Son of Jonah” Jesus calls Peter by the name Simon bar ("son of") Jonah (Mt 16:17) in response to Simon's recognition of him as "the Messiah, the Son of the living God" (Mt 16:16).

Historical Philology

Unlike the names of certain other prophetic characters in the Bible (e.g., Zechariah), Jonah does not appear to have been widely adopted as a personal name. Only two uses beyond Mt 16:17 are attested in the period 330 B.C.–200 A.D.: two ossuary inscriptions (pre-70 A.D.).

The argument has sometimes been made that bariôna in Mt 16:17 is not a patronymic meaning “son of Jonah,” but corresponds rather to an expression found in rabbinic literature signifying an “outlaw” and used to designate a member of the Zealot party. Still, the evidence of Jn 1:42 and Jn 21:15 (“Simon, son of John”) points in a more conventional direction, suggesting some confusion or perhaps simply variation in the tradition regarding the name of Peter’s father.

Analogies between Peter and Jonah

Generally, Simon Peter’s identity as a fisherman relates to the imagery of sailing and sea-creatures in the Book of Jonah. Beyond this, the meaning of Jesus’ words is ambiguous and several metaphors likely co-occur.

• The immediate context indicates that Jesus’ expression highlights the prophetic nature of Simon’s proclamation: “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven” (Mt 16:17). Moreover, Jesus’ confirmation of Peter as the rock on which he will build his Church meets with the assurance that “the gates of Hades will not prevail against it” (Mt 16:18)—a possible reference to Jonah’s expression of thanksgiving for deliverance from the netherworld in the psalm of Jonah (Jon 2:6).
• The tension between Peter’s identity as a chosen mouthpiece of God and his fallibility as a disciple is reminiscent of Jonah’s election as a prophet in important, but not exact, ways: Jonah is called by God but flees via ship. Peter, on the other hand, is called and leaves his ship and life as a fisherman (Mt 4:18–21).
• The parallel deepens as one considers later expansions in the demographic and geographic scales of Peter’s ministry. Like Jonah, Peter’s original understanding of his ministerial scope is to bring the Good News to the people of Israel, his staunchly entrenched position requires divine intervention (Acts 11:1–18).
• Unlike Jonah, Peter’s waterborne experiences in the Gospels are confined to the inland freshwater Sea of Galilee which is a far cry from the open waters of the Mediterranean where sea monsters and great fish dwell. He does have a Jonah-like experience of sinking into the depths of the waters. If the tradition is accurate that Peter eventually made it to Rome, his journey there would have almost certainly included time on an open-water vessel.
• Notably, Peter’s vision in Joppa includes an othonê, the Greek word for sail (Acts 11:5). It is in this vision that Peter is introduced to God’s expansive vision of restoration—far beyond the Sea of Galilee and the people of Israel.

1:2 Nineveh A City of Biblical Imagination Jonah contains nine of the Hebrew Bible’s fourteen direct references to Nineveh. The Book of Tobit also makes reference to Nineveh, while all explicit NT references to Nineveh occur in Matthew and Luke. Still, a keyword search for the city’s name does not suffice. Metonymic uses of the terms Nineveh, Assyria, or the king of Assyria often refer to the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its military and political power. Subsequent use emphasizes the city’s foreignness and ultimately its symbolic value for the journey toward repentance.

All major corpora of the Bible reference Nineveh, indicating the city’s significance in biblical imagination.

Nineveh in the Pentateuch and Historical Books

• The city of Nineveh first appears in the Bible in Gn 10:11–12 (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:2).
• In 2Kgs 19:36 (// Is 37:37) Sennacherib returns to Nineveh, sparing Jerusalem. Given the significant impact of the Neo-Assyrian Empire on Israel during the 8^th–7^th c. B.C., it is not surprising to find that the Assyrians loom large throughout the Books of Kings, Chronicles, and Isaiah.

Nineveh in the Book of the Twelve

• Within the Book of the Twelve, readers see prophets repeatedly announce the impending destruction of Nineveh.
• Zep 2:13 claims that God “will stretch out his hand against the north, and destroy Assyria; and he will make Nineveh a desolation, a dry waste like the desert.”
• Nahum explicitly refers to Nineveh three times (Na 1:1; 2:8; 3:7) and focuses on the downfall of Nineveh to the relief of the people of Judah. For Nahum, relief for Nineveh cannot and shall not be imagined. The prophet graphically announces that it is decreed that the city will be exiled (Na 2:3–9).

Nineveh in Tobit

• Tobit counsels his son to take his family and leave Nineveh because the promised destruction of the Assyrians is about to befall it (Tb 14:4–8; cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jon 3:4b).

Nineveh in the NT

• The three NT references to Nineveh (Mt 12:41; Lk 11:30,32) show that the city (and especially its inhabitants) had become a symbol of repentance for the Jewish community of Jesus’ day.

Nineveh, Babylon, and Empire across the Canon

There is a deep-seated connection between the cities of Nineveh and Babylon in the biblical imagination. Assyria plays the role of both foe and ally before being replaced by Babylon. Both cities serve as real and metaphorical instantiations of God’s judgment and redemption. The biblical authors’ emphasis on Babylon is proportionally greater, a reality stemming from the Judahite nature of the texts. Nevertheless, these same authors integrate the memory of Nineveh as an agent of God’s justice and punishment, as an analog in the broader biblical trope of the foreign city and as a means of raising general intertextual critiques of empire.

1:1 Yona Jonah Listed among Other Prophets

Ascension of Isaiah

Jonah is mentioned in the list of prophets in →Mart. Ascen. Isa. (4.22; →OTP  2:163), which is a composite apocryphal text from around the 2^nd c. A.D. that has been preserved in its entirety in its Ethiopic version (Ergata Isayeyas).

• The sequence of the Twelve Minor Prophets in this list matches neither M nor G.
• Jonah is named in a section that is likely a Christian interpolation. Here Isaiah gives an apocalyptically charged description of the end of the world. He recounts the destruction of the wicked along with Satan (Sammael), the second coming of Jesus, the redemption of the world (esp. the Church), and the final judgment (→OTP  2:160–163).
• In this context, Isaiah explains that these things were already written (i.e., foretold) “in the Psalms, in the parables of David the son of Jesse, and in the Proverbs of Solomon his son, and in the words of Korah and of Ethan the Israelite, and in the words of Asaph, and in the rest of the psalms which the angel of the spirit has inspired, (namely) in those which have no name written, and in the words of Amos my father and of Hosea the prophet, and of Micah, and of Joel, and of Nahum, and of Jonah, and of Obadiah, and of Habakkuk, and of Haggai, and of Zephaniah, and of Zechariah, and of Malachi, and in the words of the righteous Joseph, and in the words of Daniel” (→Mart. Ascen. Isa. 4.21–22; →OTP  2:163).

4 Ezra

Jonah is also listed among the prophets in →4 Ezra 1:39 (cf. V; →OTP  1:526), the first two chapters of which are conventionally referred to by scholars as 5 Ezra. Note that some Protestant scholars call 4 Ezra, 2 Ezra.

• Here the list of the Twelve Minor Prophets matches the order in which they occur in G.
• This list of the Twelve occurs at the end of Ezra’s prophecy of judgment directed at the Jewish people; after enumerating the many mercies that God showed to Israel throughout history, Ezra proceeds to accuse the people of having forsaken God; he concludes by pronouncing God’s judgment that the Jewish people will lose their inheritance which will be given instead to a new people.
• In this context, God addresses Ezra as the father of a new people, directing him “to look with pride and see the people coming from the east” (nunc pater aspice cum gloria et vide populum venientem ab oriente) to whom God “will give the leadership (dabo ducatum) of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and Hosea and Amos and Micah and Joel and Obadiah and Jonah and Nahum and Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who is also called the messenger of the Lord” (→4 Ezra 1.38–40).

The Sibylline Oracles

In a manner similar to 4 Ezra, Jonah is listed among a few patriarchs and prophets in →Sib. Or. (2:248; →OTP  1:351), an originally Jewish document composed in ca. 30 B.C.–30 A.D. that underwent significant Christian redaction in the 1^st and early 2^nd c. A.D. (→Kurfess 1941, 151–165).

• The Sibylline Oracles contain a stylistic presentation of world history divided into ten generations, the last of which ushers in the end of the world.
• Much like the aforementioned pseudepigraphic works, Jonah is named among other canonical biblical figures within an eschatological framework that details the end of the world and the last judgment (→Sib. Or. 2.238–250; cf. →OTP  1:351).
• The mention of the second coming of Christ in glory on a cloud (→Sib. Or. 2.241–242) indicates a Christian redaction. What is striking, however, is that in his second coming Christ will be accompanied by Moses (2.245), Abraham (2.246), Isaac, Jacob, Joshua, Daniel, Elijah (2.247), Habbakuk, and Jonah (2.248). These biblical figures will apparently serve as witnesses, since judgment is passed first upon all the Hebrews from the time of Jeremiah (2.249) and then upon all the wicked (2.254). It is difficult to discern any clear principle behind the inclusion of these figures.

1:1–17 CALENDAR Feast of Jonah in the Eastern Orthodox Liturgy

Calendar

• The Greek Orthodox Church celebrates the Prophet Jonah's feast day on September 21^st (Synaxarion→ Greek Orthodox Calendar→).
• The Orthodox Churches in the Slavic tradition celebrate it on September 22^nd (Orthodox Church in America→).

Texts

Jonah is mentioned in the following places of the liturgy for the day:

• →Hôrologion to mega: Troparion antiphon for Jonah, "The memory of your Prophet Jonah, we celebrate today, O Lord. By his prayers we entreat you: O Christ God, save our souls!"—sung after the Our Father at Vespers or after the minor entrance at the Divine Liturgy.
• →Hôrologion to mega: Kontakion hymn for Jonah: "In the glorious entrails three days and nights, you show forth Christ's descent into Hades; for when He had freely suffered His saving Passion, He arose out of the sepulchre on the third day. Therefore, we honour you, O Prophet Jonah, as a type of Christ"—sung during Matins and after the Troparia of the Divine Liturgy.
• For the usage and placement of these texts, see the →Typikon.

1:1 Now The day of Jonah's flight

• →Pirqe R. El. 10 "On the fifth day [i.e., of creation; cf. Gn 1:20–23] Jonah fled before his God."
• →Pirqe R. El. 9: These also took place on the fifth day. "On the fifth day the waters in Egypt were changed into blood. On the fifth day our forefathers went forth from Egypt. On the same day the water of the Jordan stood still before the ark of the Covenant of God. On the same day Hezekiah stopped the fountains which were in Jerusalem, as it is said, 'This same Hezekiah also stopped the upper spring of the waters of Gihon' (2Chr 32:30). On the fifth day He brought forth from the water the Leviathan, the flying serpent, and its dwelling is in the lowest waters."

Identifying Jonah's flight with the fifth day of creation—as well as the connections with Leviathan—situates the story within a broader Chaoskampf myth, the struggle between God and the chaotic forces of water (cf. Biblical Intertextuality Jon 2:3a,5a).

1:3a flee Jonah's Recalcitrance What motivates Jonah to flee God's command? Rabbinic tradition explains that Jonah flees with righteous motivations and highly informed knowledge of the revelatory process between God and his prophets.

Motivations

Early rabbinic traditions note that Jonah had several motivations for fleeing his divine call.

Some rabbis said that Jonah fled because he believed that the conversion of the Ninevites would have led to Israel's indictment, because they had rejected the prophets. According to →Pirqe R. El., Jonah had been called upon to prophesy twice before the Book of Jonah begins. The Israelites spurned Jonah after God was merciful to them. Moreover, Jonah feared that the success of Nineveh's repentance would actually be taken up by scoffers as proof that God was not going to destroy Nineveh anyway. Therefore, Jonah would be a false prophet:

• →Pirqe R. El. 10 "Why did [Jonah] flee? Because on the first occasion when (God) sent him to restore the border of Israel, his words were fulfilled, as it is said, 'And he restored the border of Israel from the entering in of Hamath' (2Kgs 14:25). On the second occasion (God) sent him to Jerusalem to (prophesy that He would) destroy it. But the Holy One, blessed be He, did according to the abundance of His tender mercy and repented of the evil (decree), and He did not destroy it; thereupon they called him a lying prophet. On the third occasion, (God) sent him against Nineveh to destroy it. Jonah argued with himself, saying, 'I know that the nations are nigh to repentance, now they will repent and the Holy One, blessed be He, will direct His anger against Israel. And is it not enough for me that Israel should call me a lying prophet; but shall also the nations of the world (do likewise)?"

Jonah was so devoted to God that he could not abide the prospect of hearing converted Ninevites mock him and, by extension, God after having been given an opportunity to repent.

• →Radal Comm. PRE "As is the way of wicked scoffers: they would not attribute the annulment of the decree to their repentance. Instead, they would complacently say that Jonah's prophecy was unfounded to begin with, or that God lacked the power to punish them. They would not comprehend that God would change an evil decree once it was issued even after repentance."

Rabbi Baḥya ascribed Jonah's reluctance to humility. 

• →Baḥya Kad "'If Moses,' Jonah says, 'was reluctant to accept God's call to redeem the righteous Jews from Egypt because he considered himself unequal to the task; then surely I, who am being sent to wicked people, should seek to avoid my mission by fleeing to a place where God will not reveal Himself to me.'" 

Function of Flight

According to the rabbis, Jonah fled the land of Israel because revelation can only take place there. If Jonah remained in Israel, then God could send a second revelation confirming the first. This is what happens later when the fish spits Jonah onto the beach. 

• →Pirqe R. El. 10 "Therefore, behold [Jonah says], I will escape from His presence to a place where His glory is not declared. (If) I ascend above the heavens, it is said, 'Above the heavens is His glory' (Ps 113:4). (If) above the earth, (it is said), 'The whole earth is full of His glory' (Is 6:3); behold, I will escape to the sea, to a place where His Glory is not proclaimed.'"
• →Radal Comm. PRE "Jonah did not err by thinking that God's dominion does not extend over the seas. Rather, he reasoned that God does not reveal Himself to His prophets in the sea since the sea is esoterically not conducive to the revelation of prophecy" (cf. →Zlotowitz and Scherman 1978, 82–83).

1:3b found a ship God’s Providence Ensures That Jonah Can Flee

• →Pirqe R. El. 10: Jonah went down to Jaffa, but found no ship in port; the last ship had sailed two days previously. In order to test Jonah, God caused a storm on the sea which forced a Tarshish-bound ship to return to port. Jonah rejoiced since he considered this Divine approval for his action. 

1:1–4:11 Veracity of Jonah as a Miraculous Account

• →Luther Tischr. 3705 “The majesty of the prophet Jonah is surpassing. He has but four chapters, and yet he moved therewith the whole kingdom, so that in his weakness, he was justly a figure and a sign of the Lord Christ. Indeed, it is surprising that Christ should recur to this but in four words. Moses likewise, in few words describes the creation, the history of Abraham, and other great mysteries; but he spends much time in describing the tent, the external sacrifices, the kidneys and so on; the reason is, he saw that the world greatly esteemed outward things, which they beheld with their carnal eyes, but that which was spiritual, they soon forgot. The history of the prophet Jonah is almost incredible, sounding more strange than any poet's fable; if it were not in the Bible, I should take it for a lie; for consider, how for the space of three days he was in the great belly of the whale, whereas in three hours he might have been digested and changed into the nature, flesh and blood of that monster; may not this be said, to live in the midst of death? In comparison of this miracle, the wonderful passage through the Red Sea was nothing. But what appears more strange is, that after he was delivered, he began to be angry, and to expostulate with the gracious God, touching a small matter not worth a straw. It is a great mystery. I am ashamed of my exposition upon this prophet, in that I so weakly touch the main point of this wonderful miracle.”

1:1–11 Latin Poetic Retelling An ancient Latin poetic retelling of Jon 1 begins with a reference to the destroyed cities of Sodom and Gomorrah:

• →Ps.-Tertullian Jona 1-9 “After the living, aye-enduring death / Of Sodom and Gomorrah; after fires / Penal, attested by time-frosted plains / Of ashes; after fruitless apple-growths, / Born but to feed the eye; after the death / Of sea and brine, both in like fate involved; / While whatsoe’er is human still retains / In change corporeal its penal badge: / A city-Nineveh-by stepping o’er" (Post Sodomum et Gomorum viventia funera in aevum / Et cinerum senio signata incendia poenae / Et frustra solis oculis nascentia poma / Et pariter facti mortem maris et salis illic / Si quid homo est poenam mutati corpore servans / Paene alios ignes superi decusserat imbris / Urbs aequi iustique viam transgressa Ninive;  Comparison of Versions Jon 1:2;  Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:2).

1:2 the great city Nineveh, a Symbol of the World

• →Gloss. ord. "Jonah...is sent to Nineveh, which is said to be splendid. Thus Christ, full of the Holy Spirit, is sent to the world, which is called in the Greek tongue ‘cosmos’—that is, ‘ornate’ and ‘beautiful,’ because of the design of the Creator. Whence ‘God saw all the things that he had made, and they were very good’ (Gn 1:31). Therefore the whole world heeds him, whom Israel despises, so that the humble man, having set aside corruptive pride, might ascend into heaven through the Son of God’s descending." 

1:3a to flee What Was Jonah Thinking? Many patristic authors focus on the mention of Jonah's flight to Tarshish, addressing two basic questions (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:3a):

• Why would a true prophet of God want to flee from him?
• How could a genuine prophet of God even think that it was possible to do so? 

Why Did Jonah Flee?  

• →Tertullian Pud. 10 asks if it was not the case that Jonah "foresaw that the mercy of God would be poured out on the heathen also, and so feared it would prove him a false prophet?" 
• →Gregory of Nazianzus Or. 2.106 “He fled from having to announce the dread of the awful message to the Ninevites and from being subsequently, if the city was saved by repentance, convicted of falsehood. It was not that he was displeased at the salvation of the wicked, but he was ashamed of being made an instrument of falsehood and exceedingly zealous for the credit of prophecy, which was in danger of being destroyed in his own person.” 
• →Ephrem Carm. Nis. 35.3 deems Satan responsible for Jonah's defiance and concludes “on us [i.e., Satan and Death] He has begun retribution for Jonah son of Amittai. On Legion, therefore, He was avenging him when He seized and cast him into the sea.”
• →Jerome Comm. Jon. "By an inspiration of the Holy Spirit within him, the prophet knows that the repentance of the Gentiles spells the downfall of the Jews. Therefore, being a lover of his homeland, it is not so much that he is jealous of the salvation of Nineveh as unwilling that his own people perish…Jonah feared for Israel’s continued existence, for he knew by the same Spirit whereby the preaching to the Gentiles was trusted to him that the house of Israel would then perish, and he feared that what was at one time to be would take place in his own time." 
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. also assumes that Jonah had a divinely bestowed premonition about what would later come to pass, namely that the Ninevites would repent and that this repentance would later be invoked as a sign by Christ against his fellow Jews. Thus, Theodore explains that Jonah "realized also that this occurred as a sign of what would happen with Christ the Lord, and the same thing would take place to a far greater degree, when the nations were called to divine grace and moved en masse to godliness, whereas Jews remained unresponsive and resistant to Christ the Lord, despite having in their midst from the beginning prophecy and teaching about him. The fact that all people dwelling everywhere would be declared heirs to the kingdom of heaven, whereas Jews would be excluded from this gift on account of their own disobedience and impiety, despite appearing to be at an advantage with such wonderful instruction, necessarily depressed him” (191). According to Theodore, it is for this reason that “the prophet opted for flight, thinking he would thus avoid prophesying to the Ninevites and prevent what would follow from it, of which the Jews’ wickedness clearly gave evidence."
• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122 has Justice (as a personified character) refer to Jonah as "the rebellious one" (mērîdyâ), an epithet that is quite close to a rare term used for Satan (mērūdâ; →Kitchen 2008, 374). Through this wordplay Jacob subtly implies that Satan is the reason for Jonah's rebellion (Bedjan 2010, 4:397.14). 

Did Jonah Think He Could Escape? 

• →Gregory of Nazianzus Or. 2.108 uses Jonah’s attempted flight as a teachable moment about God: “For God alone of all things cannot be escaped from or contended with. If he wills to seize and bring them under his hand, he outstrips the swift, he outwits the wise.”
• →Jerome Comm. Jon. asks the incredulous question of Jonah: "But if [God] made the sea and dry land, why do you think that by leaving the dry land, you are able at sea to escape the creator of the sea?"
• →Theodore of Mopsuestia Comm. Jon. surmises that Jonah was laboring under the mistaken belief that God’s presence was limited to Judea and Jerusalem so that “if he had been in the former place [i.e., Jerusalem], God would have definitely appeared to him and prompted him to do his will, whereas if he was far away, he would have avoided that problem since God would not have been prepared to show himself in other places.”
• →Cyril of Alexandria Comm. Jon. also suggests that Jonah initially held some false beliefs about God: “…some believed that the power of the God of all was confined to the land of the Jews, restricted to it, as it were, and excluding others…My view, therefore, is that the prophet had some such understanding, left Judea, and made for the Greek cities."
• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122, in a manner similar to Jerome, asks "What was he thinking was happening to him on the path that he took? What was the rebellious one thinking when he was being soaked by him? That there he was diminished, hiding from God?" (Bedjan 2010, 4:371.19–21).

Jerome's Typological Reading of Jonah's Flight

Though Jerome appears to change the subject with a Christological meditation, he seeks to answer the question "why did Jonah flee?" from God's perspective.  In this framework of thought, the ultimate purpose of Jonah's flight is to prefigure the Incarnation.  

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. "But we can say of our Lord and Savior that he left his house and homeland, and when he assumed flesh, in a certain way he fled from heaven and came to Tharsis, that is, to the sea of this world." Jerome goes on to explain how Christ's flight results in salvation, and how this loosely parallels Jonah's flight. 

Nonetheless, Jerome acknowledges the limits of typological reading:

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. "The wise reader must be asked not to look for the same arrangement of the tropology that he finds in the history. For even the apostle applies Hagar and Sarah to the two covenants, and yet not everything that is narrated in the history can be interpreted tropologically."

1:3a flee to Tarshish Luther's Jonah: A Warning to Us All

• →Luther Lect. Jon. sees Jonah's flight as a warning against disobeying God's will. "All of this is recorded as a warning for us. From it we glean the lesson first of all that he who will not obey God's will willingly must, in the end, bow to His will unwillingly."

1:2 go to Nineveh, the great city

The Mosque of Nebi Yunus

A mosque dedicated to Jonah sat atop a tell in Mosul, to the south of Esarhaddon’s palace, and was believed to be his burial place. The structure had been converted from a Nestorian church, and later a Turkish minaret was added. While the tell clearly contained important Ninevite ruins, the sanctity of the location prevented excavation.

• The Islamic State (ISIS), however, called for this mosque to be demolished as part of their campaign to destroy all mosques that include shrines.

• On July 24, 2014, corresponding to 26 Ramadan 1435 AH, the mosque was destroyed by ISIS.

• Since then, ruins and tunnels within the tell have been explored (cf. Arango, Tim. "Tears, and Anger, as Militants Destroy Iraq City’s Relics." New York Times, July 31, 2014).

Nineveh's Evil

• →Kisāʼī Qiṣaṣ describes the King of Nineveh, Thaalab ibn Sharid, as a haughty tyrant, who would raid Israelite towns and take captives.

1:4ff Jonah and the Sailors React to the Storm  Thirteen action-packed verses (Jon 1:4–16) alternating between action and dialogue begin here. This long passage narrates an adventure on the high seas, unique in the OT, in which the ship’s crew reacts to God’s storm. The author grounds this story in the realism of seafaring, while allowing for the fabulous elements of the story to emerge. Like The Wizard of Oz, a realistic setting becomes the opportunity for an encounter with the fantastic.

Adventure Story

The author draws readers in through allusions and imagery anchored in seafaring vocabulary (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3–16) and practices (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:5c; Ancient Texts Jon 1:3b), and drawn from maritime places (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3b). The adventure is conveyed through the sailors' frantic struggle—and even the personification of the ship (Literary Devices Jon 1:4c). There are similarities to the sea-going accounts of Jesus and the apostles (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:4).

Storm God

God responds to Jonah's flight by "hurling" a great wind like a spear (Literary Devices Jon 1:4a,5b,12b,15a), thereby initiating the next phase of the story. The depiction of God/gods using natural elements to gain a response from human beings is not in itself unique to Jonah (cf. plagues, droughts, miraculous waters; Marginal References Jon 1:4a; Christian Tradition Jon 1:4,11,15). It functions in the narrative to express God's command over the natural world.

Desperate Sailors

With the mention of the pagan sailors "hurling" vessels overboard, and the echo of God's command ("Get up! Call out!") in the voice of the captain (Literary Devices Jon 1:2–3:8), the narrative creates a parallel between their actions and God's. Their calling out to their gods provides an antithetical parallel to Jonah's reluctance to heed God's call. Moreover, the captain’s exclamation to Jonah—to call on his god lest they all perish—serves as the first panel of a diptych, to be completed by the Ninevite king (Jon 3:9), which contrasts Jonah’s assuredness (Jon 4:2) with the uncertainty of others (Jon 4:11).

Sleeping Jonah

Instead of working to save the ship and himself, Jonah continues his descent away from God. Jonah, as in the story’s opening, does not heed God but descends—this time to the recesses of the ship to sleep. What does the reader expect? Again, the reader is not privy to Jonah’s motivation; why and when Jonah went to sleep has inspired a great deal of speculation (Christian Tradition Jon 1:5e). The Hebrew term may hint at a divinely induced sleep, which might lead to a revelation (Literary Devices Jon 1:5e; Comparison of Versions Jon 1:5e).  However, God does not appear in a dream but in the storm.

1:5e snoring (G) Dis legomenon

• The verb regchô (alt. spelling: regkô) occurs only twice in G: Jon 1:5 and Jon 1:6. 

The verb was used in Greek literature of the 5^th–4^th c. B.C. to denote the sound of strenuous breathing.

• Applied to animals it denotes snorting or panting (cf. →Euripides Rhes. 785: "the horses snorted" [erregkon]; →Aristotle Hist. an. 537b.3, 566b.15).
• When applied to humans, it refers to snoring (cf. →Aristophanes Nub. 5 "the slaves are snoring" [regkousin]).

1:4c the ship thought

Personification: Anthropomorphic Language; Synecdoche

The verb ḥšb (pi‘el, "to think upon") is not used elsewhere of inanimate objects. Many translations avoid this difficulty with some periphrastic renderings such as “the ship was in danger of breaking up” (JPS). The text as found in the Hebrew may be considered as a personification or a synecdoche.

• The personification of the ship could serve to heighten the fantastic nature of the story, in which one finds a sea that rages in anger (Jon 1:15) and animals that repent with fasting and sackcloths (Jon 3:7–8).
• A synecdoche: “ship” in fact refers to the people on the ship.

This appears to be the only example of personification in the story. The storm, the fish, the plant, and the worm all act because they are directed by God.

Assonance

Regardless of whether this refers to the ship itself or to its crew, it does provide the storyteller with an assonant turn of phrase: ḥiššᵉbâ lᵉhiššābēr.

1:5d But Jonah descended Art of Telling

RHETORIC Dispositio: Contrasting Word Order, Stressing Jonah's Special Reaction to Divine Intervention

As in Jon 1:4 (Literary Devices Jon 1:4a), the word order of this verse emphasizes the subject, Jonah, by placing it before the verb. The context suggests that the conjunction waw contrasts Jonah with the sailors’ behavior.

NARRATION External Focalization

Although the characteristics of the Hebrew verb render the timing of Jonah’s actions ambiguous (Grammar Jon 1:5d), a consistent external vantage point (identified in the perfective aspect of the qal form yārad) coupled with a clear articulation of the sailors’ fearful motivation (identified in the realis modality of the wayyiqtol form of wayyîr’û, v. 5a), can let us guess Jonah’s motivations, even though they are not overtly articulated.

Based on the narrative, the reader is led to consider the following questions.

• Why would someone fleeing the Lord descend into a ship when confronted with a life-threatening storm, rather than panic like the rest up on deck?
• Why does Jonah fail to fear like the sailors?
• How much does Jonah understand what is happening?

If, as the narrator confidently articulates, Jonah is not on deck and not afraid, his motivations seem quite clear. In all probability, Jonah is not acting out of fear and knows what is going on.

1:5e lay down and fell fast asleep Art of Telling

RHETORIC Hendiadys (M) and Amplification (G)

• M presents an expressive hendiadys: wayyiškab wayyērādam.
• G renders that figure with the verbs katheudô (“to sleep”) and regchô (“to snore”; Vocabulary Jon 1:5e).

G’s precise diction may be intended to render the narrative more vivid and dramatic. The repetition of the word “snoring” in G-Jon 1:6 implies that the captain found Jonah asleep because he had heard Jonah’s snoring even amidst the great storm.

NARRATION Characterization of Jonah: Inspired Prophet, or Stubborn Man?

Since Jonah knows that his flight from God is the storm’s ultimate cause, it is unlikely that his deep sleep is a revelatory trance wrought by God (Biblical Intertextuality Jon 1:5e). Rather, it is translated here as “fast asleep,” emphasizing the disjunct between his and the sailors’ actions.

1:6a He said NARRATION Pause in the Action, Shift to Speech Beginning with the captain’s comments to Jonah, the action, which has been non-stop since Jon 1:2, is here interrupted. Dialogue dominates for seven verses, only returning to action in Jon 1:13 when the sailors resume rowing against the storm. With this pause comes a great deal of information about Jonah, his character, and his view of God.

1:6c,14b; 3:9b; 4:10c perish + perished — Isotopy of Death: Structuring Repetition

Sailors and the Ninevites: “We might not perish”

Hope for salvation from death is expressed by:

• The captain of the ship (Jon 1:6);
• The sailors (Jon 1:14);
• The king and nobles of Nineveh (Jon 3:9).

Jonah: “hurl me into the sea”

Jonah ultimately comes to believe that he can only escape God’s call through death. In the belly of the fish, however, he realizes that such an escape is not possible (cf. Christian Tradition Jon 2:2–6). The sailors' and Ninevites’ desire for salvation is starkly juxtaposed with Jonah’s repeated wishes for death (māwet), both on the ship amidst the storm and in his booth, beyond the walls of Nineveh, for his desire that the Ninevites would receive their comeuppance brings him great anguish when God spares them destruction (Jon 4:8–9).

The Dead Shrub

• The shrub which perishes overnight (Jon 4:10) inspires more pity in Jonah than the potential massacre of Nineveh’s population.

1:4a hurled a great wind Ancient Warrior and Storm Deities Ancient warrior imagery is often associated with verbs of throwing and casting. Divine warrior imagery associated with storm deities is present across ancient cultures, especially in Canaan, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Greece. The storm deity Ba‘al (H)adad typically casts lightning bolts as weapons in visual and literary representations.

• God of the storm and the rain, Baal walks to the right, brandishing a club with his right arm and planting a spear in the ground. He wears a beard and high horned headdress, attributes of the deity. Dressed in a loincloth adorned with fine stripes, with a curved-end dagger at his waist, he dominates a little figure standing on a pedestal, wearing a robe with a braid shawl—the king of Ugarit in ceremonial dress, praying to invoke the protection of the god (see →Schaeffer 1933 for a more detailed description).

1:4 MOTIF Stormy Sailing Scenes in the New Testament Several scenes in the Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles are reminiscent of Jonah’s experience in the storm.

• The Synoptic passages wherein Jesus calms a storm (Mt 8:23–27; Mk 4:35–41; Lk 8:22–25) use the imagery and vocabulary of Jonah. When traveling to a Gentile region, a storm causes panic while the main character sleeps. The storm is calmed and the disciples are awed. Unlike the sailors in Jonah who recognize the power of Yhwh and respond to the calming of the sea with worship, Jesus’ disciples remain uncertain of Jesus’ true identity.

• In Mt 26:40, the motif of sleeping during a moment of crisis is reversed when Jesus faces the tumultuous reality of his impending death while his disciples sleep, exhibiting, once more, their unawareness of his true identity and the things to come.
• Luke’s presentation of the shipwreck on Malta contains an account of cargo being thrown overboard by the crew that is reminiscent of the sailors in Jonah (Acts 27:27–44). Paul counsels that no harm will come to the crew and passengers, whereas Jonah gives no word of consolation, but rather retires to the belly of the ship where he falls into a deep sleep.
• According to Paul’s own words, he experienced three shipwrecks and spent a night and a day adrift in the open waters of the Mediterranean (2Cor 11:25).

1:5c vessels Idols The rabbis note that these "vessels" were actually the sailors' idols.

• →Pirqe R. El. 10 "...each one had his god in his hand, (each one) saying: 'And the god who shall reply and deliver us from this trouble, he shall be god!'"

1:5d Jonah Rabbis on Jonah See Jewish Tradition Jon 1:1.

1:6c Call out to your god! Targumic Expansion The expansion in Targum Jonathan adds a degree of urgency to the captain's words:

• →Tg. Jon.  ṣalé qŏdām ’ĕlāhāk mā’îm yitraḥém min qŏdām yy ‘ălānâ wᵉlâ nôbēd, "Pray before your god; perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us, and we will not perish."

In addition, this expansion is likely an assimilation toward the words of the Ninevites found in Jon 3:9, thus creating a parallel between the sailors and the Ninevites:

• →Tg. Jon. wᵉyitraḥém ‘ălôhî min qŏdām yy…wᵉlâ nôbēd. 

1:4,11,15 The Role of Nature in Jonah's Attempted Escape

God Uses the Forces of Nature to Prevent Jonah's Escape

• →Paulinus of Nola  Carm. 22.105–118 “Again, what of the prophet who was fleeing to Tharsis, who was cast into the sea when the lot dictated by danger fell on him, and who was swallowed by the huge gaping maw of the whale and then vomited forth unscathed from its monstrous belly? He surely teaches us that sea and stars are moved under God’s control. By vainly seeking to flee from God the Controller of all things whom none can escape, he aroused the anger of both sky and sea. Nature, which belongs to the almighty Lord, realised that [Jonah] was revolting and she was afraid to play conspirator by transporting the guilty man safely through her demesne; she chained the runaway with winds and waves. That prophet was chosen by God to frighten sinning nations by his threatening advice. Once he had spoken of the calamitous outcome, had shattered the guilty and diverted God's anger, he washed away his sins by the shedding of tears. Nineve reformed itself and so escaped its final end.”

• →Jacob of Sarug Hom. 122: In his mémrâ on the book of Jonah, the personified figure Justice (kénûtâ) informs the sailors that Jonah is the cause of the storm and assures them that if they throw him overboard, peace will be restored. Here Jacob expresses his conviction that nothing falls outside of God’s providential guidance of the world. Justice’s speech concludes with the explanation that the wind is the means by which God brings back his fleeing servant, Jonah (Bedjan 1910, 4:397.5–10).

The Calming of the Storm: A Typological Interpretation

Jerome invites readers to pay special attention to the sailors’ care in handling Jonah and to Jonah’s willingness to be thrown overboard. He suggests that the plight of the sailors in the stormy sea prefigures the state of humanity before Christ, while Jonah prefigures Christ by offering himself as a sacrifice.

• →Jerome Comm. Jon. 1:15 “The entire boat of humanity, that is, the creation of the Lord, was in peril. But then, after his passion, we see a world where there is the calm of faith, a world at peace and secure for everyone. We see a turning toward God. In this way we may understand how, after Jonah goes into the sea, the sea is alleviated of its turmoil.”

1:5c lighter The Weight of Sin

• →John Chrysostom Paenit. 5.8 reckons that even though the sailors threw the cargo overboard, the ship was no lighter, “because the entire cargo still remained within it, the body of the prophet, the heavy cargo, not according to the nature of the body but from the weight of sin. For nothing is so heavy and onerous to bear as sin and disobedience."

1:9b God of the heavens + "and earth" — Names of God

• 4QXII^a (4Q76 6:2): after the word "heavens," this fragment (frag. 19) contains the letter waw followed by ink traces that could possibly be construed as part of an aleph; though it is not certain, it is possible to reconstruct wā’āreṣ ("and earth") here (→DJD XV, 230).
• Three G miniscule manuscripts (39, 49, 764) contain the reading kai tês gês.

1:9b God of the heavens Late Biblical Hebrew ’Ĕlōhé haššāmayim is an expression common to Persian era (or later) biblical literature (e.g., 2 Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Daniel).

• A segment of curses in a Neo-Assyrian treaty between Esarhaddon and Tyre (→ANET 534) refers to a ship-sinking deity.

1:8a [you] on whose account Syntax In Jon 1:7, the sailors want to discover, bᵉšellᵉmî hārā‘â hazzō’t lānû, “On whose account this evil [storm] is upon us.” After the lot falls upon Jonah and the answer is found, the appearance of a nearly identical expression ba’ăšer lᵉmî hārā‘â hazzō’t lānû in Jon 1:8 has led some modern translators to omit either phrase (Textual Criticism Jon 1:8a) or to render them similarly (i.e., as a question).

On Whose Account?

G, V, and S maintain the interrogative sense in light of the sailors' subsequent questions. Jonah gives them his tribe (the Hebrews) and patronal deity (Yhwh, God of the heavens) in Jon 1:9, but he does not respond to all of the sailors' questions. He tells nothing of his occupation or country of origin.

The Sailors Speak Aramaic?

Moreover, the expression in v. 7 is not identical. The relative pronoun is made subtly distinct by using the Classical Hebrew form ’ăšer to replace š-. As noted above (Vocabulary Jon 1:7c), the latter (in Jon 1:7) is evidence of Aramaic influence. Perhaps the text intends to show us subtly that the sailors speak the lingua franca of the day, Aramaic, whereas Jonah speaks Hebrew. Yet such a reading likely assumes too much based on a single, small linguistic feature. Moreover, it would suggest that the sailors knew that Jonah preferred Hebrew prior to their speaking to him.

Implied Nominal Phrase

More likely, since the sailors now know through their casting of lots that it is on Jonah’s account that the storm is upon them, the subtle change in the relative marker reflects their change in perspective. No longer does the lemma appear in a context colored by doubt, but instead serves to identify a statement of fact regarding Jonah’s culpability. →Kimchi Comm. (also →Sasson 1990, 114-115) proposes that the lemma produces an implied nominal phrase: “you, on whose account.” That is, you (Jonah), on whose account we (sailors) find ourselves in this calamitous situation, must explain yourself.

1:8 RHETORIC Interrogatio: The Sailors Question Jonah Jonah has answered God’s command with rejection and the captain’s inquiry with silence. The sailors, however, barrage him with a series of questions without pausing for an answer. These could be individually rendered (as in the KJV) or paired thematically, so that they comprise just two questions: what are you doing? who are you?

PROSODY Alliteration

Presented in two pairs of connected questions, one is able to hear the alliterative qualities of the Hebrew:

• mâ…ûmē’ayin…mâ…wᵉ’é-mizzê.

NARRATION The Sailors Relay God’s Command

Even if one considers the opening to be a nominal phrase (Literary Devices Jon 1:8a), the narrative’s focus conveys the force of the sailors’ questions. Having just learned through lot-casting that Jonah is responsible, the sailors confront him with an accusation and then interrogate him. As they lay out their direct, well-structured, alliterative series of unambiguous questions, the sailors, for the first time, evoke a direct response from Jonah. Having attempted to flee God (Jon 1:3) and man (Jon 1:6), Jonah can no longer evade his lot. These men, whose lives totter on the brink, finally compel Jonah to respond. Although he faces the sailors’ questions, Jonah has still not ended his flight.

1:8a They said to him, — Tell us, [you] on whose account this evil is upon us ENUNCIATION Ambiguity The opening phrase may be translated as another question: “Tell us, on whose account is this evil upon us?”

• →Trible (1994, 139-140) suggests that this question connects with the preceding verse’s inquiry.

• Moreover, this question may indicate that the sailors ask Jonah, not for his identity, but for the cause of the storm: “Tell us now, on which [god’s] account this evil is upon us?”

• Its absence in several manuscripts of G suggests that the opening phrase might be a gloss that eventually became part of the scriptural text.

The translators of this volume opted to render the opening phrase as a nominal (subject) clause: “Tell us now, [you] on whose account this evil is upon us,” based on historical grammar and the narrative context.

1:9b I am a Hebrew. And Yhwh, God of the heavens, [him] do I fear Epistrophe The author pulls the predicate and the direct object forward, in front of the verbs for emphasis, and leaves the subjects ’ānōkî and ’ănî in the last positions.

1:9b,14b Hebrew + fear + innocent — (G) Heightened Irony G’s rendering of Jonah’s response to the sailors’ questions appears to heighten the story’s irony.

Hebrew vs. Servant of the Lord

Instead of “I am a Hebrew” (‘ibrî ’ānōkî), which is found in M, Jonah’s response found in G is “I am a servant of the Lord” (doulos kuriou egô eimi).

• The phrase doulos kuriou is almost always applied to heroic figures, such as Joshua (G-Jo 24:29; Jgs 2:8), Moses (G-2Kgs 18:12), David (G-Ps 36:1), prophet-martyrs (2Kgs 9:7), and worshippers of God (G-Ps 134:1).

At any rate, Jonah’s answer seems odd. After fleeing God, refusing to accept his prophetic mission, and endangering the ship and its crew, Jonah boldly calls himself a servant of the Lord. This is supremely ironic—even humorous—and may be why the translator chose to put this phrase on his lips (cf. Comparison of Versions Jon 1:9b).

Fear vs. Revere (or Worship)

• Instead of the general verb for fear (phobeô), which one might expect to appear here as the translation of the Hebrew yr’, G employs the verb sebomai, which denotes the experience of reverential fear as well as the act of worshipping gods (→LSJ 1588; e.g., Jo 4:24; 22:25; Is 29:13; 66:14).

This translation adds a measure of irony to Jonah’s response since those who truly fear and worship the Lord do not typically disobey him or flee from his presence. In contrast, the pagan sailors who are seized with a great visceral fear (ephobêthêsan…phobon megan) find Jonah’s behavior unfathomable (Jon 1:10) and demonstrate that they are primarily concerned with pleasing the God with whom they have just become acquainted, even offering him sacrifices (Jon 1:13-16).

Innocent Blood vs. Righteous Blood

The decision to render the adjective nāqî’ (“innocent”) with dikaion (“righteous”) may reflect a translational Tendenz to increase the irony of the story. Although a translational correspondence between the adjectives nāqî’ and dikaios is also found in Prv 1:11; 6:17; Jl 3:19, the Greek term athôᵢos (“innocent”) is used much more frequently in translating nāqî’ (over 25 times in G; cf. →Hatch and Redpath 1906, 1:30).

Because the word “innocent” refers to a state of being free from guilt, while “righteous” refers also to the positive quality of being just or possessing rectitude of will, the sailors’ request that they not be charged with righteous blood in G increases, even if only slightly, their estimation of Jonah vis-à-vis M. It can thus be argued that the sailors’ characterization of Jonah’s impending demise as “righteous blood” (as opposed to “innocent blood”) intensifies the gravity of their imprecation and that this, in turn, heightens the irony of the story; although Jonah might be thought of as innocent in this story, he by no means acts with rectitude of will.

1:10b What is this you have done? Exclamation As in Jon 1:6, when the captain accuses Jonah, the sailors accuse Jonah by means of another rhetorical question. The force of the Hebrew expression (mâ zō’t) moves toward exclamation, inasmuch as it does not seek explanation (provided by the narrator’s aside) but rather expresses despair of the ship’s fate.

1:16b They offered a sacrifice to Yhwh and made vows Conventional Motif in Sea Stories The sailors make sacrifices and vows, both of which were especially common among sailors in the ancient world (cf. Jewish Tradition Jon 1:5b). Indeed, ancient sailors often offered sacrifices before embarking, in anticipation of a speedy and safe voyage, when passing significant locations, and upon arrival. We can see this practice at work in the Odyssey (e.g., →Homer Od. 9.720); trouble on board is even blamed on the sailors’ failure to sacrifice (→Homer Od. 4.620). Moreover, one archetypically offers sacrifices at the end of flood accounts, as in the story of Noah (Gn 8:20) and the Epic of Gilgamesh (→George 2003, Tablet XI).

Likewise, making vows, as a means of bargaining, is especially natural within the context of sailing in a storm: if you keep me safe, I vow to do such and such. Consider, for example, Jacob’s vow to give a tithe in exchange for protection (Gn 28:20–22). Moreover, in some biblical accounts, vows are made in addition to sacrifices (Ps 50:14; 66:13; Is 19:21).

1:7b cast lots RELIGION Acceptable Divination Casting lots in antiquity was a form of divination, specifically, inductive divination (artificiosa divinatio).

Procedure

Divination involved any number of procedures, depending on the skills and resources available. For example, haruspicy—the examination of entrails—required a sacrificial animal, a skilled butcher, and an expert diviner (the haruspex). Less involved procedures included tossing arrows (belomancy, Ez 21:21), throwing a staff (rhabdomancy, Hos 4:12), or, in this case, casting lots (probably small, marked stones). Coin tossing, drawing straws, and rock-paper-scissors are, in a way, latter-day methods of divination.

Purpose

The aim of such procedures varied. Lots were cast to make such decisions as:

• determining land inheritance (Nm 26:55; Jo 18:6);
• identifying the leaders responsible for an attack (Jgs 20:9);
• selecting a king (1Sm 10:20–21);
• resolving disputes (Prv 18:18).

In general, casting lots was a way of discerning God’s will. Prv 16:33 states, “The lot is cast into the lap, the decision is the Lord’s alone.” Specific examples span the biblical canon, from the Pentateuch , wherein the casting of lots identifies the scapegoat (Lv 16:8), to the Acts of the Apostles, wherein the apostles cast lots to find a replacement for Judas (Acts 1:26). Thus, throughout Scripture, examples show that a kind of divination (esp. artificiosa divinatio) was considered acceptable.

In the Context of Jonah

Assuming that the storm is divine punishment and that God’s will is found in casting lots, the sailors seek to discover the guilty party. The initial casting of “lots” (gôrālôt) is plural, indicating that all on board submit to the procedure. The final “lot” (gôrāl), being singular, places fault squarely on Jonah alone.

1:13a to return to dry land ANCIENT NAVIGATION A Rash Decision? Was the decision to row to shore a wise one?

• Commentators frequently note that the decision to row to shore during a storm is a risky one that contradicts accepted wisdom among ancient mariners, who reasoned that a ship would have a better chance of surviving the waves than the rocks and reefs along the shore. This leads some to conclude that the sailors must have lost their wits (e.g., →Sasson 1990, 341).
• Still, the matter is not so simple. On the one hand, ships in the ancient Mediterranean typically sailed coastwise—that is, hugging the coast. On the other hand, larger ships certainly sailed the open seas with celestial navigation during the Persian era. Given the narrative’s lack of details, such as the size of the ship or the location of Tarshish, it is difficult to tell exactly how Jonah’s ship sailed.

However they sailed, the sailors’ intentions to return to shore need not imply that they went mad. Boats of this period were not capable of withstanding a battering at sea like modern ships. Thus, there are a few possible explanations.

• They would want to get closer to land. Should the storm destroy the ship, then they would at least have a chance to swim to safety. This is the process described in Acts 27:27–44, when the sailors intentionally try to run the ship aground and swim to safety.
• The narrative might simply mean they were sailing towards land (i.e., a port) to get out of the storm, neither contrary to good seafaring nor necessarily implying that they intended to crash the boat onto land.

See further →Wachsmann 1998.

1:9b I am a Hebrew : M | G: Interpretive Translations of Jonah’s Response

• M: “I am a Hebrew” (‘ibrî ’ānōkî).
• G: “I am a servant of the Lord” (doulos kuriou egô eimi).

G's translation may be the result of attraction to G-2Kgs 14:25, where the phrase doulou autou Iôna huiou Amathi (“his servant, Jonah son of Amathi”) occurs. However, it is also possible that this is an intentional translational decision; by putting this phrase on Jonah’s lips after he has just run from God and endangered the ship and its crew, the translator has heightened the sense of irony in the story (cf. Literary Devices Jon 1:9b,14b).

Moreover, G’s translation may have arisen from a (mis)reading (or alternate tradition) of ‘bry as ‘bdy, since the Hebrew letters dalet and resh are easily confused (even in the Paleo-Hebrew script). If one presumes that the final yod in ‘bdy is an abbreviation for the divine name, then one would have ‘bd yh, “servant of Yhwh.”

1:11b,13b more stormy The Versions' Translation of the Auxiliary hlk The Hebrew phrase hôlēk wᵉsō‘ēr comprises an idiomatic grammatical construction wherein the verb hlk serves as an auxiliary of gradual progression (Grammar Jon 1:11b,13b). The versions have different approaches to rendering this idiomatic expression.

The Septuagint: Testing the Bounds of Greek

G does not seem to have understood the usage of hlk as an auxiliary verb since the translator glosses the verb hlk woodenly with poreuomai and then gives a loose translation of s‘r with the periphrastic phrase “raising up exceedingly rough water” (exêgeire mallon kludôna).

Peshitta: An Idiom That Travels Well

Because Syriac has a similar idiomatic use of the verb “to go” (’zl), S is able to translate the Hebrew with a pair of participles from the verbs ’zl and dlḥ (“to stir up,” “to agitate”): “the sea continues to grow rougher” (’āzel wametdalâ). For another example in S, see Gn 26:13. Cf. also the corresponding Aramaic construction in →Tg. Jon. Zep 3:5; →Tg. Chr. 1Chr 11:19; →b. Ta‘an. 25a.

The Vulgate: Jerome’s Skill on Display

V captures the sense of the Hebrew: quia mare ibat et intumescebat. It seems that Jerome translates much in the same way as G, i.e., he uses the verb ire to translate hlk, which might be considered a wooden translation. On the other hand, because the verb ire can mean “to flow,” it can be argued that V is closer to rendering M’s idiom than G.

1:14b innocent blood : M | G V S: Interpretive Translations?

Septuagint: Amplifying the Sailors' Claim about Jonah

G translates the adjective nāqî’ (“innocent”) with dikaion (“righteous”). This unexpected translation may have been intended as a narrative device, heightening the irony of the story. See Literary Devices Jon 1:9b,14b above for a further explanation.

Peshitta: A Cognate Translation

S uses the cognate adjective zakkāy ("innocent, just") to translate the Hebrew. In later Aramaic, the concept of "righteousness" is also within the semantic range of this adjective, as is evidenced by Targumic (e.g., →Tg. Ps.-Jon. on Gn 22:1) and Midrashic (e.g., →Pesiq. Rab Kah. 16.9) usage. 

Vulgate: Following M

As expected, V’s innocentem corresponds to the Hebrew. 

1:11–16 TYPOLOGY Pattern for Jesus Calming a Storm The Synoptic passages of Jesus calming a storm (Mt 8:23–27 // Mk 4:35–41 // Lk 8:22–25) utilize the imagery and vocabulary of Jonah. Traveling to a Gentile region, a storm causes panic while the main character sleeps. The storm is calmed and the sailors are awed.

1:15a hurled Not So Fast

• →Pirqe R. El. 10: Rabbi Simeon says that the sailors were so reluctant to throw Jonah into the sea that they first put Jonah’s legs in the water. When the storm stopped, they pulled Jonah back into the boat. The storm immediately began again, so they put Jonah in the water up to his neck and the storm stopped. When they pulled Jonah back into the boat and storm returned, they realized that they needed to throw him fully overboard.

1:15b and the sea ceased Holy Things Settle the Storm Tossing Jonah overboard to settle the raging seas is reminiscent of an episode recorded in the Talmud wherein David stills the waters beneath the future Temple Mount by inscribing the tetragrammaton on a potsherd and tossing it into the deep. Does God’s prophet, in a mystical way, bear the name of God?

• →b. Sukkah 53b "When David dug the Pits, the Deep arose and threatened to submerge the world. ‘Is there anyone,’ David enquired, ‘who knows whether it is permitted to inscribe the [Ineffable] Name upon a sherd, and cast it into the Deep that its waves should subside?’ There was none who answered a word. Said David, ‘Whoever knows the answer and does not speak, may he be suffocated.’ Whereupon Ahitophel adduced an a fortiori argument to himself: ‘If, for the purpose of establishing harmony between man and wife, the Torah said, ‘Let My name that was written in sanctity be blotted out by the water,’ how much more so may it be done in order to establish peace in the world!’ He, therefore, said to him, ‘It is permitted!’ [David] thereupon inscribed the [Ineffable] Name upon a sherd, cast it into the Deep and it subsided sixteen thousand cubits. When he saw that it had subsided to such a great extent, he said, ‘The nearer it is to the earth, the better the earth can be kept watered’ and he uttered the fifteen Songs of Ascent, and the Deep re-ascended fifteen thousand cubits and remained one thousand cubits [below the surface]."

1:16c made vows (Fully) Converted Sailors

• →Rashi Comm. asserts that the vows made were vows to convert.
• →Pirqe R. El. 10 adds that, having seen not only the calming of the sea but also the swallowing of Jonah, the sailors reversed course back to Joppa. After docking, they made their way to Jerusalem, were circumcised, and offered sacrifices. 

1:14c for you, O Yhwh, have done as you have willed The Sailors Recognize God's Justice

• →Jerome Pelag. 2.23 argues that the sailors do not know what wrong Jonah has committed and "do not question the justice of the judgment of God but acknowledge the veracity of the just Judge."
• →Calvin Prael. proph. min. "[T]he Lord so turned their hearts, that they now saw more clearly how grievous a sin it was to flee away from the call of God."

1:15a hurled him into the sea Literary Treatments

Theatric Re-enactment of the Hurling Scene

• →Shakespeare Pericles Act III, Scene 1: Thaisa, Pericles’ wife, is considered a type of Jonah by the sailors, since they blame her for causing a storm. When she dies in childbirth, the sailors want to cast her overboard to calm the storm. At the time the play was written, English speakers used the term “a Jonah” to refer to a person who brings bad luck (→Hamlin 2018, 120–122).

Children’s Bibles Add Humor to Peril

While there is nothing funny about the peril faced by the sailors who fear for their lives, many retellings for children seek to tone down this dangerous scene through the inclusion of humor or animals.

• →Page and Page 2006 “So the sailors picked him up / and they threw him in the sea; / The waves died down / and they all had tea. / (Except for Jonah).”
• →Marzollo 2004 "Jonah ran away from God. But did God run away from Jonah? I don’t know. I’m only an octopus!” 

1:17a a great fish to swallow Jonah Fish Stories in the News In the 1890s several French, English, and American newspapers published reports of sailors swallowed at sea. Many of these concern one James Bartley, a whaler who worked near the Falkland Islands. The following are examples of such articles (the first few are nearly identical): 

• July 2, 1891–The Wheeling Daily Intelligencer, “A Modern Jonah”;

• July 14, 1891–The Daily Independent, “The Modern Mr. Jonah”;

• July 15, 1891–The Los Angeles Times, “A Modern Jonah”;

• July 30, 1891–Wood County Reporter, “A Real Living Jonah”;

• Aug. 19, 1891–The Somerset Herald, “Swallowed by a Whale”;

• Aug. 22, 1891–The Yarmouth Mercury, “Rescue of a Modern Jonah”;

• March 12, 1896–Journal des débats, politiques et littéraires, Thursday column;

• April 12, 1896–The New York World, “A Modern Jonah Proves His Story”;

• Nov. 17, 1896–The New York Times, under “Personal”;

• Dec. 4, 1896–The New York Times, “A Shark Story of Great Merit” reports that two men were swallowed by a shark and then the next day were found inside the shark’s stomach when it was cut open. 

Can a Whale Swallow a Man?

In March 2019, at the time of the annual sardine migration (“Sardine Run”), off the coast of Port Elizabeth, South Africa, diver Rainer Schimpf was filming a small school of sardines being devoured by a group of sharks. He did not notice a 15-meter-long whale moving straight toward him with his mouth agape, intending to gulp a swarm of sardines drawn by a ball of bait; at the last moment, the whale tried to avoid Schimpf. A human being, however, cannot be swallowed whole by a whale of this type. Indeed, the upper jaw of this kind of whale has baleen, horny blades which filter the food. To feed, cetaceans open their mouths, and suck a large amount of water that is filtered by the baleen (“Diver Recounts Panic of Almost Being ‘Swallowed’ Alive by Massive Whale,” Today, 11 March, 2019).

Only the sperm whale, which feeds on giant squid weighing several hundred pounds, is anatomically capable of swallowing a human being. From 19^th-century whale fisheries we have stories of men who were swallowed whole and then rescued; but there is very little evidence that any of these stories is true. There is, however, a reliable report from 1947, which states that a man was pulled from the carcass of a whale “badly crushed, decomposed, and extremely dead” (→Perrin 2009, 1228).

17f Fish in Folklore: "Island" and "Swallow" Tales Two types of fish-tale are found in folklore:

• the “island” tale;
• the “swallow” tale.

The former kind usually involves sailors who spot an island upon which they disembark and encamp. Having lit a bonfire, the sailors learn the “island” is actually a huge fish when, in reaction to the fire, it sinks to the depths drowning some or all of the travelers.

The latter kind of tale usually consists of seafarers who are swallowed by a fish and strive to free themselves by various means and with varying success.

“Island” Tales

• In the →Avesta: Yasna 9.10–11, Keresaspa slays a horned monster upon whom he had begun to boil a kettle. “Hot grew this deceiver and began to sweat. Forth from under the kettle rushed he, and upset the boiling water.”
•  →Ps.-Callisthenes Alex. 224 contains a letter purportedly written by Alexander the Great to Aristotle, wherein he describes an “island” in India that reveals itself to be a sea-monster, “for the evil barbarians had said it was an island, but it was a whale.”
• A similar story also appears in the First Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor (→1001 Nights 3:5–13).
• The Vita metrica sancti Brendani contains an episode wherein Brendan says Mass on the back of a fish (→Act. S. Brend. 55–56).

“Swallow” Tales

• →Vishńú puráńa: Pradyumna, a six-day-old child, is swallowed by a large fish.
• In →Somadeva Kath., the following are “swallow” tales: The Story of Bhímabhata, The Story of Keśata and Kandarpa, and The Story of the Two Princesses.
• → Lucian of Samosata Ver. hist. 1.30–42 relates the story of a great fish measuring 170 miles in length who swallowed the protagonists’ ship, its interior containing an island with human and non-human inhabitants. First, the seafarers try to escape by tunneling out, but give up after half-a-mile leads to nothing. Secondly, they set fire to the interior forest which, after twelve days, weakens the monster, allowing their ship to be pushed out through its mouth.
• In a footnote for the myth of Hesione and Hercules in →Ps.-Apollodorus Bibl. 2.5.9, Frazer amplifies the tale with an anecdote drawn from a medieval commentator: “Tzetzes says that Hercules, in full armour, leaped into the jaws of the sea-monster, and was in its belly for three days hewing and hacking it, and that at the end of the three days he came forth without any hair on his head. The Scholiast on Homer tells the tale similarly” (1:208). Emerging hairless from the fish is a common trope (cf. →Duan. Finn 60.16-17; →Coulter 1926; →Ziolkowski 1984).
• The Vita metrica sancti Brendani likewise contains a “swallow” tale (→Act. S. Brend. 63–64).

17f; 2:10 fish Sea Monsters in Greek Literature

• →Homer Od. 12.97: kêtos refers to the great beast that Scylla eats.
• →Homer Il. 20.147: kêtos refers to a menacing monster of the deep from which Heracles flees.
• →Euripides Androm. fr. 1: kêtos refers to the sea monster sent by Poseidon that nearly devoured Andromeda. Andromeda was the beautiful daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiope of Joppa in Palestine. On one occasion, Cassiope boasted that Andromeda was more beautiful than the Nereids, sea-nymphs, thereby offending them. In order to obtain satisfaction, Poseidon sent a kêtos to devastate Cepheus’ kingdom, and it would only relent when Cepheus agreed to offer Andromeda as a sacrifice to it. Thus, Andromeda was chained to a rock on the coast near the city of Joppa and left to be devoured by the kêtos (Historical and Geographical Notes Jon 1:3b). Fortunately, Perseus slew the monster in exchange for Andromeda’s hand in marriage and she eventually bore him six sons and a daughter (cf. →Hamilton 1953, 204–207).
• →Ps.-Apollodorus Bibl. 2.5.9: kêtos refers to the sea monster sent by Poseidon that nearly devoured Hesione. The gods Apollo and Poseidon decided to test the justice of King Laomedon by taking on human form and agreeing to fortify the city of Pergamum for him for a wage. When Laomedon did not pay, Apollo sent a pestilence and Poseidon sent a kêtos that would snatch people away when carried up to the plain by a flood. Laomedon’s only recourse was to offer his daughter Hesione as a sacrifice to the kêtos, which he did by fastening her to the rocks near the sea. She was eventually saved by Hercules, who slew the kêtos in exchange for the mares which Zeus had given to Laomedon in compensation for the rape of Ganymede. However, Laomedon reneged on the deal and Hercules threatened to make war on Troy.

17b–1 innards

Jonah, between Jewish and Christian Liturgies: His Presence in the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles

Jonah is briefly mentioned in a prayer contained in  →Const. ap., a 4^th-c. work that collects authoritative apostolic prescriptions on moral conduct, liturgy, and the proper order in the Church (cf. →Bradshaw 2002, 73–87).